Critical process variables must be controlled to ensure uniform and repeatable heat-treating results. This chapter covers the subject of controlling the heat-treating process. All heat-treating equipment utilizes various sensors, timers, and other components to monitor and control the process utilizing various control methods. The chapter focuses on temperature control and measurement, including a discussion about thermocouples and devices for measuring thermal and electrical conductivity.

The appendix contains detailed simulation examples through which readers learn how to format and analyze problems using the LAMMPS molecular dynamics simulator. By means of simulation, readers will determine the thermal expansion coefficient of copper, generate stress-strain plots for aluminum at different temperatures, calculate the surface energy of copper for different crystal orientations, investigate diffusion effects in BCC iron, estimate the sliding friction between graphene layers, compare the stacking fault energy of silver and aluminum, and analyze the properties and behaviors of liquids and gases. All examples employ a systematic problem-solving approach and include necessary input code.

This chapter focuses on resistance characteristics and methods of protecting different forms of high-temperature gaseous corrosion, namely high-temperature oxidation, sulfidation, carburization, hydrogen effects, and hot corrosion.

This chapter discusses the basic principles of induction heating and related engineering considerations. It describes the design and operation of induction coils, the magnitude and distribution of magnetic fields, and the forces that generate eddy currents in metals. It explains how induced electrical current causes metal to heat in proportion to their electrical resistance and how it affects temperature dependent properties such as resistivity and specific heat and, in turn, heating rates and efficiencies. It also discusses the effect of hysteresis and explains why eddy currents tend to be confined to the outer surface of the workpiece, a phenomenon known as the skin effect. The chapter includes several data plots showing how the depth of heating varies with frequency and how heating time, power density, and thermal conduction rate correspond with hardening depth.

This appendix contains a table listing density, thermal conductivity, linear expansion, electrical resistivity, and Young's modulus of various materials.

This chapter describes the molecular structures and chemical reactions associated with the production of thermoset and thermoplastic components. It compares and contrasts the mechanical properties of engineering plastics with those of metals, and explains how fillers and reinforcements affect impact and tensile strength, shrinkage, thermal expansion, and thermal conductivity. It examines the relationship between tensile modulus and temperature, provides thermal property data for selected plastics, and discusses the effect of chemical exposure, operating temperature, and residual stress. The chapter also includes a section on the uses of thermoplastic and thermosetting resins and provides information on fabrication processes and fastening and joining methods.

This appendix is a collection of tables containing thermal, electrical, mechanical, and physical property data for metals under various conditions. It also includes the periodic table of elements.

This chapter discusses the tooling used for autoclave curing, one of the most common composite fabrication processes. The discussion covers curing practices, material selection factors, and design challenges associated with thermal expansion, tool shrinkage, part complexity, and heating and cooling rates. The chapter also includes best practices and recommendations for toolmaking and assembly.

This chapter provides a brief overview of nickel-iron-base, cobalt-base, and nickel-base superalloys, discussing their basic metallurgy and defining characteristics.

This chapter provides a thorough review of the crystal structure of beryllium and its elastic, thermal, and nuclear properties. It also includes information on electrical and optical properties and an extensive amount of data in the form of tables and plots.

This chapter discusses the properties and applications of beryllium intermetallic compounds. It describes the crystal structure of key beryllides, the metals they contain, and important properties such as high-temperature strength, thermal conductivity and expansion, oxidation resistance, and density. It explains how beryllide intermetallics are formed using sputter deposition, diffusion, and powder metal methods.

This chapter provides an overview of the physical metallurgy of beryllium, discussing phases and phase transformations, physical and mechanical properties, heat treatment, and alloying. It explains how the atomic structure of beryllium, particularly its sp hybrid state, contributes to the anisotropy of elastic constants and slip properties, resulting in a specific stiffness, or modulus-to-density ratio, six times higher than that of any other structural material.

Fiber-reinforced metal-matrix composites have carved out a niche in applications requiring high strength to weight ratios, but they are susceptible to failure when exposed to high temperatures and cyclic loads. This chapter discusses the obstacles that must be overcome to improve the creep-fatigue behavior of these otherwise promising materials. It addresses six areas that have been the focus of intense research, including thermal-expansion and elastic-viscoplastic mismatch, thermally induced biaxiality and interply stresses, creep and cyclic relaxation of residual stresses, and enhanced interfaces for oxidation.

This chapter discusses the metallurgy, phase structure, thermal processing, and applications of martensitic stainless steels. The phenomenon of martensite formation is explained. A table listing the compositions of martensitic stainless steels is also presented.

This chapter discusses different thermal processes applicable to the various alloy groups of stainless steels, namely austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, precipitation hardening, and duplex stainless steels. The processes discussed include soaking, annealing, stress relieving, austenitizing, tempering, aging, and conditioning.

This appendix contains tables listing the physical and mechanical properties of stainless steel engineering alloys. The physical properties covered are density, modulus of elasticity, coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, specific heat, and electrical resistivity. The mechanical properties listed include yield strength, tensile strength, elongation and hardness.

This appendix is a collection of tables listing coefficients of linear thermal expansion for carbon and low-alloy steels, presenting a summary of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, and heat capacity; and listing thermal conductivities and specific heats of carbon and low-alloy steels.

The physical properties of a material are those properties that can be measured or characterized without the application of force and without changing material identity. This chapter discusses in detail the common physical properties of metals, namely density, electrical properties, thermal properties, magnetic properties, and optical properties. Some physical properties for a number of metals are given in a table.

This chapter discusses the advantages of using powder metallurgy to produce magnetic materials, particularly its ability to control chemistry and near-net shape. It also explains how process parameters and powder characteristics influence the physical and magnetic properties of common stainless steels.