Critical process variables must be controlled to ensure uniform and repeatable heat-treating results. This chapter covers the subject of controlling the heat-treating process. All heat-treating equipment utilizes various sensors, timers, and other components to monitor and control the process utilizing various control methods. The chapter focuses on temperature control and measurement, including a discussion about thermocouples and devices for measuring thermal and electrical conductivity.

This chapter presents the theory and practice associated with the application of thin films. The first half of the chapter describes physical deposition processes in which functional coatings are deposited on component surfaces using mechanical, electromechanical, or thermodynamic techniques. Physical vapor deposition (PVD) techniques include sputtering, e-beam evaporation, arc-PVD, and ion plating and are best suited for elements and compounds with moderate melting points or when a high-purity film is required. The remainder of the chapter covers chemical vapor deposition (CVD) processes, including atomic layer deposition, plasma-enhanced and plasma-assisted CVD, and various forms of vapor-phase epitaxy, which are commonly used for compound films or when deposit purity is less critical. A brief application overview is also presented.

This chapter discusses the basic principles of induction heating and related engineering considerations. It describes the design and operation of induction coils, the magnitude and distribution of magnetic fields, and the forces that generate eddy currents in metals. It explains how induced electrical current causes metal to heat in proportion to their electrical resistance and how it affects temperature dependent properties such as resistivity and specific heat and, in turn, heating rates and efficiencies. It also discusses the effect of hysteresis and explains why eddy currents tend to be confined to the outer surface of the workpiece, a phenomenon known as the skin effect. The chapter includes several data plots showing how the depth of heating varies with frequency and how heating time, power density, and thermal conduction rate correspond with hardening depth.

This chapter examines some of the behaviors that suit materials for electrical and electronic applications. It begins by explaining how charge carriers move in metals and semiconductors and how properties such as conductivity, mobility, and resistivity are derived. It discusses the significance of energy bands, intrinsic and extrinsic conduction, and the properties of compound semiconductors. It also covers semiconductor devices, including p-n junctions, light emitting diodes, transistors, and piezoelectric crystals.

This appendix contains a table listing density, thermal conductivity, linear expansion, electrical resistivity, and Young's modulus of various materials.

This appendix is a collection of tables containing thermal, electrical, mechanical, and physical property data for metals under various conditions. It also includes the periodic table of elements.

This appendix contains tables listing the physical and mechanical properties of stainless steel engineering alloys. The physical properties covered are density, modulus of elasticity, coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, specific heat, and electrical resistivity. The mechanical properties listed include yield strength, tensile strength, elongation and hardness.

The physical properties of a material are those properties that can be measured or characterized without the application of force and without changing material identity. This chapter discusses in detail the common physical properties of metals, namely density, electrical properties, thermal properties, magnetic properties, and optical properties. Some physical properties for a number of metals are given in a table.

This article discusses electrical testing and recommended procedures for determining the electrical properties of insulating materials, with particular emphasis on plastics. It describes the electrical characteristics of various forms of plastics and also presents definitions of the terms used in connection with testing and specifying plastics for electrical applications.

This article discusses the composition, properties, and behaviors of copper and its alloys. It begins with an overview of the characteristics, applications, and commercial grades of wrought and cast copper. It then discusses the role of alloying, explaining how zinc, tin, aluminum, silicon, and nickel affect the physical and mechanical properties of coppers and high-copper alloys as well as brasses, bronzes, copper-nickels, and nickel silvers. It also explains how alloying affects electrical conductivity, corrosion resistance, stress-corrosion cracking, and processing characteristics.

This article explains how alloying elements affect the properties and behaviors of electrical contacts. It describes the composition, strength, hardness, and conductivity of a wide range of contact alloys and composites based on silver, copper, gold, platinum, palladium, tungsten, and molybdenum, and related oxides and carbides.

This chapter lays the groundwork for understanding electrode kinetics associated with corrosion. It presents a simple but useful theory relating kinetics to the polarization behavior of half-cell reactions. The theory is based on the observation that electrode potentials vary as a function of current density or charge transfer in a given area. The chapter explains how to measure and plot electrode potentials and currents and how to interpret the resulting polarization curves. It also discusses the effects of concentration gradients, explaining how they cause diffusion and, in some cases, produce changes in electrode potential.

This chapter develops a corrosion model that accounts for solution potentials and the effects of coupling between cathodic and anodic reactions. It begins by examining potential differences at various points (in the solution) along a path from the anode to the cathode area. It then presents a simple model of a galvanically coupled electrode, in which the metal is represented as an array of anode and cathode reaction surfaces. The chapter goes on to develop the related theory of mixed electrodes, showing how it can be used to predict corrosion rates based on measured potentials and current densities, polarization characteristics, and physical variables such as anode-to-cathode area ratios and fluid velocity. It also discusses the effect of corrosion inhibitors, galvanic coupling, and external currents, making extensive use of polarization curves.

This chapter discusses the complex polarization characteristics of active-passive metals and addresses related problems in interpreting their corrosion behavior. It begins by presenting several experimentally derived polarization curves for iron, comparing and contrasting them with the iron-water Pourbaix diagram. It then explains how anodic polarization is extremely sensitive to the environment and, as a result, a reasonably complete curve for a given metal-environment system usually can only be inferred. It goes on to describe how such curves are constructed, demonstrating the procedures for a wide range of alloys and environments. The examples also show how factors such as alloy concentration, crystal lattice orientation, temperature, and dissolved oxygen affect corrosion behavior.

This chapter discusses the principles of corrosion of metals in aqueous environments. The thermodynamics of aqueous corrosion is the subject of the first half of this chapter, which addresses concepts such as corrosion reactions and free-energy change, the relationship between free energy and electrochemical potential, the effect of ionic concentration on electrode potential, and the corrosion behavior of a metal based on its potential-pH diagram. The corrosion (potential-pH) behavior of iron, gold, copper, zinc, aluminum, and titanium are described. Understanding the kinetics of corrosion and the factors that control the rates of corrosion reactions requires examination of the concepts of polarization behavior and identification of the various forms of polarization in an electrochemical cell. These concepts, addressed in the remaining of this chapter, include anodic and cathodic reactions, the mixed-potential theory, and the exchange currents.

This chapter describes the physical properties of steels used for castings. The properties covered include density, modulus of elasticity, Poisson's ratio, shear modulus, thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, specific heat, thermal diffusivity, electrical resistivity, and magnetic properties.