This chapter provides a detailed account of the development of tool steel technology. It begins with a record of steelmaking in ancient and medieval times. The crucible melting process involved in making steel is then discussed. This is followed by a description of the increasing use of alloys for tool steels. The chapter provides information on the research investigations into the metallurgy of high-speed tool steels at MIT, Union Carbide, and Carbon Laboratories. The major research effort involved in substituting molybdenum for tungsten in high-speed tool steels is discussed. The chapter also describes the role of the Cleveland Twist Drill Company as the first adopter of molybdenum high-speed steel. It ends with a discussion on the advanced work on high-speed steels by Swedish researchers.

Casting is the most economical processing route for producing titanium parts, and unlike most metals, the properties of cast titanium are on par with those of wrought. This chapter covers titanium melting and casting practices -- including vacuum arc remelting, consumable electrode arc melting, electron beam hearth melting, rammed graphite mold casting, sand casting, investment casting, hot isostatic pressing, weld repair, and heat treatment -- along with related equipment, process challenges, and achievable properties and microstructures. It also explains how titanium parts are produced from powders and how the different methods compare with each other and with conventional production techniques. The methods covered include powder injection molding, spray forming, additive manufacturing, blended elemental processing, and rapid solidification.

This chapter covers the practices and procedures used for shape casting metals and alloys. It begins with a review of the factors that influence solidification and contribute to the formation of casting defects. It then describes basic melting methods, including induction, cupola, crucible, and vacuum melting, and common casting techniques such as sand casting, plaster and shell casting, evaporative pattern casting, investment casting, permanent mold casting, cold and hot chamber die casting, squeeze casting, semisolid metal processing, and centrifugal casting.

This chapter provides an overview of beryllium casting practices and the challenges involved. It discusses the stages of solidification, the effect of cooling rate, the difficulty of heat removal, and the potential for hot cracking. It describes common melting techniques, including vacuum induction melting, vacuum arc melting, and electron beam melting, and some of the ways they have been used to cast beryllium alloys. The chapter also includes information on metal purification and grain refinement procedures.

This article discusses the steps in the primary processing of stainless steels: melting, refining, remelting, casting, and hot rolling. It provides information of the major categories of defects in hot rolled stainless steels, namely hot mill defects, inclusion-related defects, and hot ductility-related defects.

Aluminum has many outstanding properties, leading it to be used for a wide range of applications. It offers excellent strength-to-weight ratio, good corrosion and oxidation resistance, high electrical and thermal conductivity, exceptional formability, and relatively low cost. This chapter examines the metallurgy, composition, processing, and mechanical properties of aluminum and its alloys, both cast and wrought forms. It also covers heat treating and basic temper designations, including annealed, work hardened, solution heat treated, and solution heated treated and aged. The chapter concludes with information on corrosion and oxidation resistance.

Titanium alloys are classified according to the amount of alpha and beta phase material retained in their structures at room temperature. This chapter discusses the metallurgy, composition, processing, and properties of titanium and its alloys. It provides information on melting, forging, casting, heat treating, and secondary fabrication. It also discusses the advantages and disadvantages of titanium and its alloys in various applications.

Superalloys are nickel, iron-nickel, and cobalt-base alloys designed for high-temperature applications, generally above 540 deg C. This chapter covers the metallurgy, composition, and properties of cast and wrought superalloys. It provides information on melting, heat treating, and secondary fabrication processes. It also covers coating technology, including aluminide diffusion and overlay coatings, and addresses the advantages and disadvantages of superalloys in various applications.

This chapter discusses the melting and conversion of superalloys and the solidification challenges they present. Superalloys have high solute content which can lead to untreatable defects if they solidify too slowly. These defects, called freckles, are highly detrimental to fatigue life. The chapter explains how and why freckles form as well as how they can be prevented. It describes the criteria for selecting the proper melting method for specific alloys based on melt segregation and chemistry requirements. It compares standard processes, including electric arc furnace/argon oxygen decarburization melting, vacuum induction melting, vacuum arc remelting, and electroslag remelting. It also addresses related issues such as consumable remelt quality, control anomalies, melt pool characteristics, and melt-related defects, and includes a section that discusses the processes involved in converting cast ingots into mill products.

The detailed heating requirements for specific applications must be considered before construction and implementation of any induction heating process. These requirements may include considerations such as type of heating, throughput and heating time, workpiece material, peak temperature, and so forth. The major applications of induction technology include through heating, surface heating (for surface heat treatment), metal melting, welding, brazing, and soldering. This chapter summarizes the selection of equipment and related design considerations for these applications.