This chapter examines the surface interactions that occur during metal forming operations at both the macroscopic and microscopic scale. It describes the measurement and characterization of surface profiles based on form error, waviness, and roughness. It explains how workpiece surfaces become rougher or smoother due to the effects of deformation, tooling interactions, and lubricant film thickness. It familiarizes readers with the concept of nominal contact, the role of asperities, and the effects of interface pressure, plasticity index, shear stress, and bulk strain rate. It also reviews the two basic friction rules applicable to metal forming and presents advanced friction models that account for the transition between Coulomb and Tresca behavior and the effects of lubrication.

This chapter provides basic concepts and background for customer-related manufacturing processes applied to aluminum products including forming, joining and welding, surface treatments, and machinability. It reviews the selection criteria, key testing regimes, and original equipment manufacturer (OEM) requirements. The chapter also presents examples that demonstrate the importance of choosing the correct alloy and temper to successfully meet the OEM fabrication criteria.

Malleable iron has unique properties that justify its application in the metal working industry. This chapter discusses the advantages, limitations, and mechanical properties of malleable iron; provides a description of the malleabilization process; and presents manufacturing guidelines for malleable iron castings.

With cold work, mechanical strength (measured either by yield strength or ultimate tensile strength) increases and ductility (measured by elongation, reduction of area, or fracture toughness) normally decreases. This chapter discusses the mechanisms that produce these changes and the factors that influence them. It explains how cold working increases dislocation density and how that affects the stress-strain characteristics of steel, particularly the onset of deformation. It describes the effects of deformation on ferrite, austenite, cementite, and pearlite, and how to optimize their microstructure for various applications through controlled deformation. It also provides information on subcritical annealing, the examination and control of texture, the use of optical microscopy to monitor the effects of recrystallization, and the effect of cold working on threaded fasteners, nails, and filaments used to manufacture cords.

This chapter is dedicated mostly to the metallurgical effects on the corrosion behavior of corrosion-resistant alloys. It begins with a section describing the importance of alloying elements on the corrosion behavior of nickel alloys. The chapter considers the metallurgical effects of alloy composition for heat-resistant alloys, nickel corrosion-resistant alloys, and nickel-base alloys. This chapter also discusses the corrosion implications of changing the alloy microstructure via solid-state transformation, second-phase precipitation, or cold work. It concludes with a comparison of corrosion behavior between cast and wrought product forms.

This chapter describes the equipment and processes used to form titanium alloy parts. It discusses the advantages and disadvantages of hot and cold forming, the factors that influence formability, and the effect of forming temperature and lubricants. It describes common processes, including brake forming, stretch forming, deep drawing, and spin forming as well as roll forming, drop-hammer forming, tube bulging and bending, and superplastic forming. It also discusses dimpling and joggling and the use of hot sizing to correct springback.

This chapter describes the processes, applications, and limitations of forming and shaping various materials. It discusses bulk forming, hot working, cold working, sheet forming, and polymer and powder processing.

This chapter describes the nature of the problems arising from using advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) and discusses potential remedies to minimize the adverse effects that may limit the adoption of AHSS in the automotive industry. The discussion provides information on press energy, springback, residual stress, die wear, hot forming, downgaging limits, welding, binders, draw beads, and tool material wear.

This chapter briefly reviews the experience-based guidelines that were developed for forming and welding advanced high-strength steels (AHSS). It discusses the benefits of using HSS in car body structures and components that are analyzed by the performance indices developed for materials selection.

The increased use of advanced high-strength steels to achieve weight reduction in automobiles has led to the development of innovative tool designs and manufacturing processes. Among these technologies and processes are: real-time process control, active drawbeads, active binders, flexible binders, and flexible rolling. This chapter presents the implementation, advantages, disadvantages, and applications of these processes and technologies.

Beryllium is an extraordinary metal with an unusual combination of physical and mechanical properties. It has low density, high stiffness, and excellent dimensional stability. It is also transparent to x-rays and can be machined to extremely close tolerances. This chapter discusses the properties, compositions, and processing characteristics of beryllium and its alloys. It provides information on powder production and consolidation, commercial designations and grades, wrought products, and forming processes. It also discusses the issue of corrosion, the use of protective treatments and coatings, and health and safety concerns.

Titanium is a lightweight metal used in a growing number of applications for its strength, toughness, stiffness, corrosion resistance, biocompatibility, and high-temperature operating characteristics. This chapter discusses the applications, metallurgy, properties, compositions, and grades of commercially pure titanium and alpha and near-alpha, alpha-beta, and beta titanium alloys. It describes primary and secondary fabrication processes, including melting, forging, forming, heat treating, casting, machining, and joining as well as powder metallurgy and direct metal deposition. It also compares and contrasts the properties of wrought, cast, and powder metal titanium products and discusses corrosion behaviors.

Any forming process that converts stored energy to plastic deformation in less than a few milliseconds is considered a high-velocity or impulse forming process. This chapter discusses the operating principles, equipment, and applications of the most common high-rate forming processes, including high-velocity hydroforming, high-velocity mechanical forming, and electromagnetic or energy-based forming.