This chapter provides an overview of the production and use of titanium and its significance as an engineering material. It begins by identifying important deposits and ores and assessing current and future production capacities and how they align with global consumption trends. It then describes the physical and mechanical properties of pure titanium and numerous grades of wrought titanium alloys and explains how they compare with other aerospace materials in terms of processing complexity and cost. The chapter also includes information on extractive metallurgy, current and emerging processes, product forms, and related costs.

The discovery and use of materials have shaped civilization since ancient times. This chapter traces the history of the use of metals from hammered copper estimated to be 11,000 years old to the development of electrolytically refined aluminum in 1884. The discussion covers the advent of the Bronze Age, extraction of metals from their respective ores, and the discovery of modern metals such as chromium, vanadium, platinum, and titanium.

This chapter presents a brief description of the three-step process: melting, decarburizing, and alloying. It also discusses the following processes: wild process, rustless process, and Linde Argon-Oxygen decarburization process.

Beryllium, despite its relatively simple atomic structure, possesses a wide range of useful engineering properties. It has the highest strength-to-weight ratio and modulus of elasticity among structural metals and is an important alloy addition in copper, nickel, and aluminum alloys. It also has excellent thermal properties, low atomic mass, a small x-ray absorption cross section, and a large neutron scattering cross section. This brief introductory chapter provides an overview of the unique qualities of beryllium along with typical applications and uses.

This chapter describes some of events and developments that helped drive the commercialization of beryllium and its acceptance as an engineering material. It traces the growth of the domestic beryllium industry from its origins in the 1920s to the present time, and provides a status update on the primary beryllium producers throughout the world.

Beryllium is the 44th most abundant element on Earth, with an estimated concentration of six parts per million in the Earth’s crust. It is found in various forms in more than 100 minerals, two of which, beryl and bertrandite, account for most of the beryllium produced throughout the world. This chapter describes where and how beryllium is obtained and provides facts, figures, and insights on global supply and demand.

This chapter provides a thorough review of the crystal structure of beryllium and its elastic, thermal, and nuclear properties. It also includes information on electrical and optical properties and an extensive amount of data in the form of tables and plots.

This chapter provides a fundamental understanding of beryllium reduction thermodynamics as a prerequisite for subsequent chapters on extraction, chemical processing, and corrosion. It examines a number of reduction methods along with a potential refining process, highlighting the challenges encountered with each.

This chapter describes some of the processes used to concentrate beryllium-rich minerals from ores. It discusses the flotation of bertrandite and phenacite from calcite, mica, fluorspar, and quartz-containing ores, the flotation of beryl from pegmatitic gangues and low-grade deposits, and the use of chemical activators and conditioning agents. It also explains that hand sorting is still very common because of processing challenges and inefficiencies.

This chapter describes some of the chemical processes that have been developed to extract beryllium from different types of ore. It covers the Kjellgren-Sawyer sulfate method, the Degussa method, Copaux-Kawecki fluoride extraction, solvent extraction, and leaching and settling. It also provides information on electrolytic extraction and the use of electrorefining.

This chapter reviews the basic chemistry of beryllium metals and compounds, including beryllium hydroxide, beryllium carbonates, beryllium fluoride, and beryllium chloride. It discusses the uses as well as application challenges of various forms of beryllium and includes information on their chemical properties and reactions.

This chapter describes the procedures and processes used to chemically analyze beryllium samples. It discusses gravimetric, volumetric, colorimetric, and fluorometric techniques, radiochemical separation and assay, and the use of emission spectrometry and polarographic methods.

This chapter discusses the synthesis of important beryllium compounds, including beryllium borides, beryllium carbide, beryllium carbonates, beryllium carboxylates, beryllium halides, beryllium hydride, beryllium hydroxide, beryllium nitrate, beryllium nitride, beryllium oxalate, beryllium oxide, beryllium oxide carboxylates, beryllium perchlorate, beryllium phosphates, beryllium sulfate, and beryllium sulfide.

This chapter discusses the properties and applications of beryllium intermetallic compounds. It describes the crystal structure of key beryllides, the metals they contain, and important properties such as high-temperature strength, thermal conductivity and expansion, oxidation resistance, and density. It explains how beryllide intermetallics are formed using sputter deposition, diffusion, and powder metal methods.

Beryllium is an important additive in the production of amorphous metal alloys, achieving low density and high strength. It also plays a role in amorphous alloys that can be slowly cooled and still retain their amorphous structure. This chapter provides information on the development of amorphous alloys that contain beryllium and the applications for which they are suited.

This chapter provides an overview of the physical metallurgy of beryllium, discussing phases and phase transformations, physical and mechanical properties, heat treatment, and alloying. It explains how the atomic structure of beryllium, particularly its sp hybrid state, contributes to the anisotropy of elastic constants and slip properties, resulting in a specific stiffness, or modulus-to-density ratio, six times higher than that of any other structural material.

This chapter discusses the composition, properties, and uses of the most common beryllium alloys and composites. It provides information on beryllium-aluminum, beryllium-copper, and beryllium-titanium as well as beryllium-antimony and beryllium-iron systems.

This chapter is a compilation of beryllium phase diagrams, representing more than 25 binary alloy systems from beryllium-aluminum to beryllium-zirconium. Each diagram is presented along with a summary and source reference.

This chapter explains how to safely prepare beryllium alloy samples for metallographic analysis. It describes grinding, polishing, and etching procedures in detail. It also discusses the identification of major and minor constituents and the general appearance of beryllium microstructure.

This chapter describes the effect of processing variables on the mechanical properties of beryllium, including tensile and yield strength, fracture toughness, creep and fatigue strength, ductile-to-brittle transition, and notch sensitivity. It also discusses the effects of chemical composition, impurities, and grain size and the use of hydrostatic testing.