Carbonitriding introduces and diffuses atomic nitrogen into the surface steel during carburization. This chapter focuses on case composition of a carbonitrided case, case depth, case hardenability, hardness gradients, void formation, and applications of carbonitriding. The chapter discusses furnaces suitable for carbonitriding, atmosphere constituents, batch furnace atmospheres, continuous furnace atmospheres, safety, temperature selection, quenching, tempering, and hardness testing of a carbonitrided case.

This chapter discusses the processes involved in the heat treatment of steel, namely austenitizing, hardening, quenching, and tempering. It begins with an overview of austenitizing of steels by induction heating, followed by a discussion on the processes involved in transformation of the soft austenite into martensite or lower bainite in the hardening operation. The chapter provides information on various quenching systems and a description of quenching techniques, namely austempering, martempering, and patenting. Difficulties associated with hardening of steel are discussed. Further, the chapter describes the equipment used for and principal variables of tempering. It discusses the causes for various forms of embrittlement due to tempering. Information on multiple tempering, protective-atmosphere tempering, and selective tempering are also provided, along with processes involved in selection of tempering temperature. The chapter ends with a section discussing various effects, advantages, and disadvantages of precipitation hardening.

Heat treatment of steel involves a number of processes to condition the microstructure and obtain desired properties. This includes various methods namely, annealing, normalizing, and hardening by quenching and tempering. This chapter focuses on general heat treatment procedures and the applications of particular types or grades of carbon and low-alloy steels. The discussion covers carbon steel classification for heat treating, tempering of quenched carbon steels, and austempering of steel. In addition, the chapter discusses the effects of alloying and hardenability on steel and provides information on martempering of steel.

The possible classification for tool steels is their division into four groups according to their final application: hot-worked, cold-worked, plastic mold, and high-speed tool steels. This chapter mainly follows such division by application, but the grade nomenclatures used here are primarily from AISI. It presents the classification of tool steels and discusses the principles and processes of tool steel heat treating, namely normalizing, annealing, hardening, and tempering. Various factors associated with distortion in several tool steels are also covered. The chapter discusses the composition, classification, and properties of unalloyed and low-alloy cold-worked tool steels; medium and high-alloy cold-worked tool steels; and 18% nickel maraging steels.

This chapter provides a practical understanding of heat treatments and how to employ them to optimize the properties and structures of cast irons and steels. It discusses annealing, normalizing, quenching, tempering, patenting, carburizing, nitriding, carbonitriding, and nitrocarburizing. It describes the primary objectives of each treatment along with processing sequences, process parameters, and related phase transformations. The chapter contains more than 100 images, including time-temperature diagrams, transformation curves, data plots, and detailed micro- and macrographs. It also discusses the concepts of hardenability, critical diameter, quench severity, and Jominy testing.

This chapter discusses the evolution of engineering alloy steels, namely chromium, nickel, and nickel-chromium alloy steels. The discussion includes the automotive demand and development of specifications for the alloy steels. It also covers various research on heat treatment of alloy steels, providing information on hardening, transformation of austenite, hardenability testing, and tempering of as-quenched martensite.

Induction hardened steels are often tempered to increase their ductility and relieve quenching stresses. During tempering, martensitic microstructures supersaturated with carbon decompose into a more stable, ductile form. This chapter discusses the transformations associated with the tempering process and their effect on ductility as well as other properties. It describes the structural and compositional changes that occur during the four stages of tempering, the relative influence of time and temperature, and how tempering affects the hardness of various grades of steel. The chapter discusses the practice of both furnace and induction tempering, describing where and how they are used, their tempering characteristics, strengths and limitations, and operating parameters. It also discusses the use of residual heat tempering, a self-tempering process.

This appendix provides tempering curves for common grades of steel, including 1045, 1144, 4140, 4150, and E52100.

Most steels that are hardened are subjected to a subcritical heat treatment referred to as tempering. Tempering improves the toughness of as-quenched martensitic microstructures but lowers strength and hardness. This chapter describes the microstructural changes that occur during tempering and their effect on the mechanical properties of steel. It also discusses the effect of alloying elements and the formation of oxide colors.

Steels with martensitic and tempered martensitic microstructures, though sometimes perceived as brittle, exhibit plasticity and ductile fracture behavior under certain conditions. This chapter describes the alloying and tempering conditions that produce a ductile form of martensite in low-carbon steels. It also discusses the effect of tempering temperature on the mechanical behavior and deformation properties of medium-carbon steels.

This chapter discusses ferrous metals, including low-carbon steels, stainless steels, and cast irons. It also provides information on hardening and hardenability and the tempering process.

This chapter discusses the types, methods, and advantages of heat treating procedures, including annealing, normalizing, tempering, and case hardening. It describes the iron-carbon system, the formation of equilibrium and metastable phases, and the effect of alloy elements on hardenability and tempering response. It discusses the significance of critical temperatures, the use of transformation diagrams, and types of annealing treatments. It also provides information on heat treating furnaces, the effect of heating rate on transformation temperatures, quench and temper procedures, and the use of cold treating.

This chapter discusses different thermal processes applicable to the various alloy groups of stainless steels, namely austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, precipitation hardening, and duplex stainless steels. The processes discussed include soaking, annealing, stress relieving, austenitizing, tempering, aging, and conditioning.

This chapter reviews the causes and cases associated with the problems originated by tempering of steels. To provide background on this phenomenon, a brief description of the martensite reactions and the steel heat treatment of tempering is given to review the different stages of microstructural transformation. A section describing the types of embrittlement from tempering, along with mechanical tests for the determination of temper embrittlement (TE), is presented. Various factors involved in the interaction of the TE phenomenon with hydrogen embrittlement and liquid-metal embrittlement are also provided. The cases covered are grinding cracks on steel cam shaft and transgranular and intergranular crack path in commercial steels.

Steel heated in contact with air at temperatures in the tempering range takes on various temper colors due to the formation of a thin oxide film. This appendix provides information on the cause and source of oxidation of steel and time-temperature effect on SAE 1035 steel. In addition, figures that show temper colors after heating 1035 steel in circulating air are presented.

One of the primary advantages of steels is their ability to attain high strengths through heat treatment while still retaining some degree of ductility. Heat treatments can be used to not only harden steels but also to provide other useful combinations of properties, such as ductility, formability, and machinability. This chapter discusses various heat treatment processes, namely annealing, stress relieving, normalizing, spheroidizing, and hardening by austenitizing, quenching and tempering. It also discusses two types of interrupted quenching processes: martempering and austempering. The chapter concludes with a brief section on temper embrittlement.

Most quenched steels are tempered because the toughness of as-quenched steels is generally very poor. The tempering operation sacrifices strength for improvements in ductility and toughness. This chapter discusses the tempering process, the challenge of tempered martensite embrittlement, and the effect of wt% carbon on toughness. It also explains how alloying elements improve the hardenability and tempering response of plain carbon steels.