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Book Chapter
Book: Alloy Phase Diagrams
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 27 April 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v03.a0006292
EISBN: 978-1-62708-163-4
... Abstract This article defines crystallographic terms and concepts, including crystal structure, unit cell, structure symbols, lattice, space-group notation, and atom position. It schematically illustrates the atom positions, prototypes, structure symbols, space-group notations, and lattice...
Abstract
This article defines crystallographic terms and concepts, including crystal structure, unit cell, structure symbols, lattice, space-group notation, and atom position. It schematically illustrates the atom positions, prototypes, structure symbols, space-group notations, and lattice parameters for some of the simple metallic crystals. A table that lists the crystal structures of various metal elements is presented. The crystal structures are described by the Pearson symbols for crystal system, space lattice, total number of atoms per unit cell, and prototype structure. The article tabulates the assorted structure types of metallurgical interest arranged according to Pearson symbol. It also provides information on crystal defects in all real crystals, explaining some significant ones, such as point defects, line defects, stacking faults, and twins.
Book Chapter
Book: Corrosion: Materials
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13b.a0006544
EISBN: 978-1-62708-183-2
... mechanisms used to characterize structures. It illustrates the unit cells and ion positions for some simple metal crystals, arranged alphabetically according to Pearson symbol. The space lattice and crystal system, space-group notation, and prototype for each crystal are also illustrated. corrosion...
Abstract
The crystal structure of a material is an important aspect of corrosion and oxidation processes. This article provides a general introduction to the crystal structure of materials, providing information on the crystal systems, lattice dimensions, nomenclature, and solid-solution mechanisms used to characterize structures. It illustrates the unit cells and ion positions for some simple metal crystals, arranged alphabetically according to Pearson symbol. The space lattice and crystal system, space-group notation, and prototype for each crystal are also illustrated.
Book: Alloy Phase Diagrams
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 27 April 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v03.a0006293
EISBN: 978-1-62708-163-4
... lattice parameters of the unit cells are given in nanometers. The compilation of the table is restricted to changes in crystal structure that occur as a result of a change in temperature or pressure. allotropes crystal structure lattice parameter metallic elements phase transformation THE...
Abstract
This article presents a table of the crystal structure of allotropic forms of metallic elements in terms of the Pearson symbol, space group, and prototype of the structure. The temperatures of the phase transformations are listed in degree Celsius and the pressures are in GPa. The lattice parameters of the unit cells are given in nanometers. The compilation of the table is restricted to changes in crystal structure that occur as a result of a change in temperature or pressure.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003084
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... Abstract Crystal structure is the arrangement of atoms or molecules in the solid state that involves consideration of defects, or abnormalities, in idealized atomic/molecular arrangements. The three-dimensional aggregation of unit cells in the crystal forms a space lattice or Bravais lattice...
Abstract
Crystal structure is the arrangement of atoms or molecules in the solid state that involves consideration of defects, or abnormalities, in idealized atomic/molecular arrangements. The three-dimensional aggregation of unit cells in the crystal forms a space lattice or Bravais lattice. This article provides a brief review of the terms and basic concepts associated with crystal structures. It also discusses some of the significant defects obstructing plastic flow in real crystals, namely point defects, line defects, stacking faults, twins, and cold work. Several tables in the article provide information on the crystal structures and lattice parameters of allotropes of metallic elements.
Book: Corrosion: Materials
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13b.a0003837
EISBN: 978-1-62708-183-2
... and creep resistance at elevated temperatures. Ni 3 Al has an L1 2 ordered and face-centered cubic crystal structure ( Ref 1 ) that can be maintained up to 1395 °C (2545 °F) ( Fig. 4 ). Its unit cell contains four atoms, with three nickel atoms occupying face-centered positions and with one...
Abstract
This article reviews the corrosion behavior of intermetallics for the modeling of the corrosion processes and for devising a strategy to create corrosion protective systems through alloy and coating design. It discusses the high-temperature corrosion properties of intermetallics and aqueous corrosion properties. Thermodynamic principles in the context of high-temperature corrosion and information on oxidation; sulfidation; hot corrosion of NiAl-, FeAl-, and TiAl-based intermetallics; and silicides are included. The article explores the thermodynamic consideration, ordering influencing kinetics, stress-cracking corrosion, and hydrogen embrittlement of aqueous corrosion. It also explains the practical issues dealing with the corrosion problems.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 22A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2009
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v22a.a0005418
EISBN: 978-1-62708-196-2
... calculated from the (unit) slip plane normal vector n and the (unit) vector in the slip direction or Burgers vector b from m i j s = 1 2 ( n i b j + n j b i ) and is by definition symmetric and traceless. The overall strain rate in the grain is then given by...
Abstract
Self-consistent models are a particular class of models in continuum micromechanics, that is, the field concerned with making predictions of the properties and evolution of aggregates whose single-crystal deformation behavior is known. This article provides information on the measurement and representation of textures as well as prediction of texture evolution in single-phase materials and two-phase aggregates.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 22A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2009
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v22a.a0005428
EISBN: 978-1-62708-196-2
... potential orientation swaps, more central processing unit time is spent on simulating boundary migration. There are many ways of ensuring that only boundary sites are sampled for potential orientation swaps, each of which has an associated computational overhead and memory allocation implications. The...
Abstract
The misorientation of a boundary of a growing grain is defined not only by its crystallography but also by the crystallography of the grain into which it is growing. This article focuses on the Monte Carlo Potts model that is typically used to model grain growth, Zener-Smith pinning, abnormal grain growth, and recrystallization. It introduces the basics of the model, providing details of the dynamics, simulation variables, boundary energy, boundary mobility, pinning systems, and stored energy. The article explains how to incorporate experimental parameters and how to validate the model by comparing the observed behavior quantitatively with theory. The industrial applications of the model are also discussed. The article also provides a wide selection of the algorithms for implementing the Potts model, such as boundary-site models, n -fold way models, and parallel models, which are needed to simulate large-scale industrial applications.
Book: Casting
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 15
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005351
EISBN: 978-1-62708-187-0
... Abstract In the handling of molten aluminum, it is fairly common to use filters as a part of the melting unit and in the gating and/or riser system. This article describes the methods of in-furnace and in-mold filtration, with emphasis on the filtration of molten aluminum. It discusses the...
Abstract
In the handling of molten aluminum, it is fairly common to use filters as a part of the melting unit and in the gating and/or riser system. This article describes the methods of in-furnace and in-mold filtration, with emphasis on the filtration of molten aluminum. It discusses the factors that influence the formation of inclusions. The article describes the three basic methods of mechanically removing or separating inclusions from molten metal. The methods include sedimentation, flotation, and positive filtration. The article provides a discussion on the types of molten-metal filters, including bonded-particle filters, cartridge filters, and ceramic foam filters. It lists the factors that are important in achieving optimum performance of any in-furnace filtering application. The article concludes with information on filtered metal quality.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003051
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
... these products contain core holes or open cells, and the extent of open area helps to define the product. Structural tile are used for walls and floors in Europe. Hollow brick provide through-the-wall units and are larger than standard brick, thus reducing wall cost. Brick was the paving of...
Abstract
Traditional ceramics, one of two general classes, are commonly used in high-volume manufacturing to make building materials, household products, and various industrial goods. Although there is a tendency to equate traditional ceramics with low technology, sophisticated processes and advanced manufacturing techniques are often used where these materials are employed. This article examines several traditional ceramics, including structural clay, whiteware, glazes, enamels, portland cements, and concrete. It also provides a detailed account of fabrication methods, properties, and applications. As an example, common applications for structural clay include facing materials, load-bearing units, pavers, and ceramic tiles.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 23
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2012
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v23.a0005660
EISBN: 978-1-62708-198-6
... composites. A discussion on natural materials, nanomaterials, and stem cells is also provided. The article concludes with information on examples of biomaterials applications, including endovascular devices, knee implants, and neurostimulation. biocompatibility biomaterials cardiac pacemakers...
Abstract
The biocompatibility of a material relates to its immunological response, toxicity profile, and ability to integrate with surrounding tissue without undesirable local or systemic effects on a patient. This article underscores the transformation of the medical device design ecosystem engaged as an integral part of the device ecosystem. It discusses the various applications of biomaterials, including orthopedic, cardiovascular, ophthalmic, and dental applications. The article describes the four major categories of biomaterials, such as metals, polymers, glass and ceramics, and composites. A discussion on natural materials, nanomaterials, and stem cells is also provided. The article concludes with information on examples of biomaterials applications, including endovascular devices, knee implants, and neurostimulation.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006659
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
.... Common GC detectors are the thermal conductivity cell detector, flame ionization detector, electron capture detector, sulfur chemiluminescence detector, and nitrogen-phosphorus detector. gas chromatography detectors gas chromatography CHROMATOGRAPHY is about separating (often...
Abstract
This article is dedicated to gas chromatography (GC), covering the chromatographic method and primary components of a modern GC apparatus. The components include the carrier gas cylinder, flow controller and pressure regulator, sample inlet and injection port, column oven, and detector. Common GC detectors are the thermal conductivity cell detector, flame ionization detector, electron capture detector, sulfur chemiluminescence detector, and nitrogen-phosphorus detector.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006679
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... of these methods. Some of the factors pertinent to electrochemical cells are also provided. In addition, the article provides information on various potentiometric membrane electrodes used to quantify numerous ionic and nonionic species. coulometry potentiometric membrane electrodes...
Abstract
This article describes various methods of electrochemical analysis, namely coulometry, electrogravimetry, voltammetry, electrometric titration, and nanometer electrochemistry. The discussion covers the general uses, sample requirements, application examples, advantages, and limitations of these methods. Some of the factors pertinent to electrochemical cells are also provided. In addition, the article provides information on various potentiometric membrane electrodes used to quantify numerous ionic and nonionic species.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006643
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... diffraction peaks. The positions contain all the information on the geometry of the crystalline lattice. The intensities are related to the types of atoms and their spatial arrangement in the unit cell of the lattice. The sharpness of the diffraction peaks is an indicator of the perfection of the single...
Abstract
This article describes the methods of X-ray diffraction analysis, the types of information that can be obtained, and its interpretation. The discussion covers the basic theories of X-rays and various types of diffraction experiments, namely single-crystal methods for polychromatic and monochromatic beams, powder diffraction methods, and the Rietveld method.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006631
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... The main application of single-crystal x-ray diffraction (XRD) is to characterize the crystal structure, including determining symmetry, unit cell parameters, atomic coordinates and thermal displacement parameters, bond lengths and angles between the atoms, and structural motive (or topology). During...
Abstract
This article provides a detailed account of the concepts of single-crystal x-ray diffraction (XRD). It begins with a historical review of XRD methods, followed by a description of the various factors involved in crystal symmetry. The article then focuses on the phase problem in x-ray structural analysis and validation of the structural model. Some of the factors to be considered for performing experimental procedure are provided. The article presents several examples of applications of single-crystal XRD. The following sections cover the crystallographic problem in terms of structural analysis, software programs for crystal structure solution and refinement, and visualization of crystal structures. The article ends with a discussion on various databases available for single-crystal XRD analysis.
Book Chapter
Book: Alloy Phase Diagrams
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 27 April 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v03.a0006229
EISBN: 978-1-62708-163-4
... ( Fig. 6a ) When the CuAu alloy is cooled and transforms to the ordered CuAu I structure, the gold atoms remain at the top and bottom faces and at the unit cell corners, while copper atoms are located at the side face sites, causing a slight change in the lattice parameter ( Fig. 6b ). It can be seen...
Abstract
In some phase diagrams, the appearance of several reactions is the result of the presence of intermediate phases. These are phases whose chemical compositions are intermediate between two pure metals, and whose crystalline structures are different from those of the pure metals. This article describes the order-disorder transformation that typically occurs on cooling from a disordered solid solution to an ordered phase. It provides a table that lists selected superlattice structures and alloy phases that order according to each superlattice. The article informs that spinodal decomposition has been particularly useful in the production of permanent magnet materials, because the morphologies favor high magnetic coercivities. It also describes the theory of spinodal decomposition with a simple binary phase diagram.
Book Chapter
Book: Corrosion: Materials
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13b.a0003799
EISBN: 978-1-62708-183-2
... the conversion of measurements made against various reference electrodes and at different temperatures. There are two types of temperature coefficients for electrochemical reactions. The isothermal temperature coefficient is based on the definition that the half-cell reaction: 0.5 H 2...
Abstract
This article discusses a tool for the conversion of measurements made against various reference electrodes at different temperatures. It reviews different electrode potential temperature coefficients, namely, isothermal temperature coefficient and thermal temperature coefficient. The article contains a table that lists the electrode potentials and conversion factors for various reference electrodes.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001271
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... whose lower speeds can allow roll coating of the organic films. Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of a typical electrotinning line, using vertical plating cells. Source: Ref 1 Packaging and containers include the main sector, food and beverage cans ( Fig. 1 ), as well as general-purpose containers...
Abstract
This article explains the applications of continuous electroplated steel. For each category of application, the type of coating needed and the key attributes of the coating are discussed. The bulk of the article describes electrodeposition technology, including plating line components and process classification.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006654
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... peaks, and their occurrence and directions in space are according to Bragg’s law, which is detailed in the next paragraph. The peaks have different intensities, reflecting the electron distribution (how atoms are arranged) in the unit cell. Structure determination by XRD relies on the directional and...
Abstract
This article discusses the techniques and applications of synchrotron x-ray diffraction, providing information on x-ray generation, monochromation, and crystallography. X-ray diffraction techniques covered include single-crystal and powder diffraction. Some of the factors involved in the construction and development of macromolecular x-ray crystallography are also described.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006681
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... a sum of the atomic scattering factors from all the atom positions in the unit cell: Fig. 19 Illustration of relationship between direct and diffracted beams at an ( hkl ) plane of a crystalline structure (Eq 6) F θ = ∑ j f j exp 2 π i hx j + ky j...
Abstract
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) approach enables essentially simultaneous examination of microstructural features through imaging from lower magnifications to atomic resolution and the acquisition of chemical and crystallographic information from small regions of the thin specimen. This article discusses fundamentals of the technique, especially for solving materials problems. Background information is provided to help understand basic operations and principles, including instrumentation, the physics of signal generation and detection, image formation, electron diffraction, and spectrometry techniques with data analysis.
Book: Casting
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 15
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005213
EISBN: 978-1-62708-187-0
... graphite bounded by (0001) and ( 10 1 ¯ 0 ) type planes; the hexagonal arrangement of the atoms within the (0001) plane is shown relative to the bounding ( 10 1 ¯ 0 ) faces. (b) Hexagonal structure of graphite showing the unit cell (heavy lines). Source: Ref 6...
Abstract
Cast iron exhibits a considerable amount of eutectic in the solid state. This article discusses the structure of liquid iron-carbon alloys to understand the mechanism of the solidification of cast iron. It illustrates nucleation of the austenite-flake graphite eutectic, austenite-spheroidal graphite eutectic, and austenite-iron carbide eutectic. The article provides a discussion on primary austenite and primary graphite. Depending on the carbon equivalent, the primary phase in cast iron can be either austenite for hypoeutectic cast iron or graphite for hypereutectic cast iron. The article also describes the growth of eutectic in cast iron in terms of isothermal solidification, directional solidification, and multidirectional solidification.