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Book Chapter
X-Ray Diffraction for Bulk Structural Analysis
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003251
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... inorganic chemical compounds. This article describes the operating principles and types of XRD analyses, along with information about the threshold sensitivity and precision, limitations, sample requirements, and capabilities of related techniques. The necessary instrumentation for XRD analyses include...
Abstract
X-ray diffraction (XRD) is the most extensively used method for identifying and characterizing various aspects of metals related to the arrangements and spacings of their atoms for bulk structural analysis. XRD techniques are also applicable to ceramics, geologic materials, and most inorganic chemical compounds. This article describes the operating principles and types of XRD analyses, along with information about the threshold sensitivity and precision, limitations, sample requirements, and capabilities of related techniques. The necessary instrumentation for XRD analyses include the Debye-Scherrer camera and the X-ray diffractometer. The article also describes the uses of XRD analyses, such as the identification of phases or compounds in metals and ceramics; detection of order and disorder transformation; determination of lattice parameters and changes in lattice parameters due to alloying and temperature effects; measurement of residual stresses; characterization of crystallite size and perfection; characterization of preferred orientations; and determination of single crystal orientations.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003250
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... Determination of composition and thickness of thin film deposits Detection Threshold and Precision: Energy Dispersive Detectors Threshold sensitivity: ∼0.02% Precision of quantitative analyses: ∼1% relative or 0.02% absolute, depending on count time Detection Threshold and Precision...
Abstract
The overall chemical composition of metals and alloys is most commonly determined by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and optical emission spectroscopy (OES), and combustion and inert gas fusion analysis. This article provides information on the capabilities, uses, detection threshold and precision methods, and sample requirements. The amount of material that needs to be sampled, operating principles, and limitations of the stated methods are also discussed.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003253
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... Threshold and Precision Threshold sensitivity: ∼0.5% Precision of quantitative analyses: ∼10% relative or 0.5% absolute, whichever is greater Limitations Cannot detect hydrogen or helium Quantitative analyses are typically lower in quality than those of EPMA Sample Requirements...
Abstract
This article describes the operation and capabilities of surface analysis methods of metals, including scanning electron microscopy, electron probe microanalysis, transmission electron microscopy, secondary ion mass spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. It provides information on the capabilities, typical uses, spatial resolution, elemental analysis detection threshold and precision, limitations, sample requirements, and operating principles of the scanning auger microprobe.
Book Chapter
Microstructure-Sensitive Modeling and Simulation of Fatigue
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 22A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2009
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v22a.a0005405
EISBN: 978-1-62708-196-2
.... The article provides a description of the microstructure-sensitive modeling to model fatigue of several classes of advanced engineering alloys. It describes the various modeling and design processes designed against fatigue crack initiation. The article concludes with a discussion on the challenges...
Abstract
The purposes and methods of fatigue modeling and simulation in high-cycle fatigue (HCF) regime are to design either failsafe components or components with a finite life and to quantify remaining life of components with pre-existing cracks using fracture mechanics, with the intent of monitoring via an inspection scheme. This article begins with a discussion on the stages of the fatigue damage process. It describes hierarchical multistage fatigue modeling and several key points regarding the physics of crack nucleation and microstructurally small crack propagation in the HCF regime. The article provides a description of the microstructure-sensitive modeling to model fatigue of several classes of advanced engineering alloys. It describes the various modeling and design processes designed against fatigue crack initiation. The article concludes with a discussion on the challenges in microstructure-sensitive fatigue modeling.
Book Chapter
Guide to Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006438
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
.... NDE methods are designed to allow detection thresholds to be set to maximize the POD while minimizing the PFA. Factors affecting the POD include the signal sensitivity to degradations of interest, the size or severity of degradation that constitutes a critical flaw, instrument and material noise...
Abstract
This article provides a discussion on general nondestructive evaluation (NDE) science and considerations for specific technique selection. It explains the basic concept of flaw detection and evaluation and probability of detection. The article provides an overview of NDE methods with their applications, limitations, and advantages. It includes details on NDE codes, calibration standards, inspection frequency, guidance on how to perform inspections, applicability, and mandatory and nonmandatory practice. The article also provides tips on where to focus inspections in order to align with the likely areas of damage or degradation and a number of other aspects of inspection.
Image
Ventilation and oxygenation in hydrogels with vascularized alveolar model t...
Available to PurchasePublished: 12 September 2022
; (b) distal lung subunit composed of a concave and convex airway ensheathed in vasculature by 3D offset and anisotropic Voronoi tessellation; (c) threshold view of the area enclosed by the dashed box in (d) demonstrates bidirectional RBCs flow during ventilation; (e) distal lung subunit can stably
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Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003252
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... Analysis Detection Threshold and Precision Threshold sensitivity for elemental analysis using EDS detector: ∼1% Precision of quantitative elemental analysis using EDS detector: ∼10% relative or 2% absolute, whichever is greater Limitations Energy dispersive detectors used for chemical...
Abstract
Microstructural analysis is the combined characterization of the morphology, elemental composition, and crystallography of microstructural features through the use of a microscope. This article reviews three types of the most commonly used electron microscopies in metallurgical studies, namely scanning electron microscopy, electron probe microanalysis, and transmission electron microscopy. It briefly describes the operating principles, instrumentation which includes energy dispersive X-ray detectors, spatial resolution, typical use of the techniques, elemental analysis detection threshold and precision, limitations, sample requirements, and the capabilities of related techniques.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2003
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13a.a0003633
EISBN: 978-1-62708-182-5
... of the measured time to failure, t f , is plotted against the applied stress, σ applied , and the time to failure can be seen to increase rapidly with decreasing stress; a threshold stress, σ th , is determined where the time to failure approaches infinity. The total time to failure at a given stress consists...
Abstract
Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) is a phenomenon in which time-dependent crack growth occurs when the necessary electrochemical, mechanical, and metallurgical conditions exist. This article provides an overview of the environmental phenomenon, mechanisms, and controlling parameters of SCC. It describes the phenomenological and mechanistic aspects of the initiation and propagation of SCC. The article includes a phenomenological description of crack initiation and propagation that describes well-established experimental evidence and observations of stress corrosion. Discussions on mechanisms describe the physical process involved in crack initiation and propagation. The article also includes information on dissolution models and mechanical fracture models.
Book Chapter
Superplastic Deformation at Elevated Temperatures
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 8
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v08.a0003292
EISBN: 978-1-62708-176-4
... behavior in superplastic materials was explained in terms of three possibilities: (a) the presence of threshold stress processes that are not sensitive to temperature, such as the interaction between boundary dislocations and ledges ( Ref 41 ), and fluctuations in the grain boundary area ( Ref 37 ); (b...
Abstract
Studies on mechanical behavior of superplasticity at or above 50" of the melting point lead to the understanding of superplasticity as a creep phenomenon. This article provides a discussion on the four relationships that define the basic deformation characteristics associated with a creep process: the stress and strain rate, strain rate or stress and temperature, strain rate or stress and grain size, and strain contributed by boundary sliding and total strain. The article describes the deformation characteristics and mechanisms of low-stress region, intermediate-stress region, and high-stress region. It also discusses the effect of impurities on superplastic flow and concludes with information on grain growth during testing.
Book: Fatigue and Fracture
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 19
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1996
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v19.a0002357
EISBN: 978-1-62708-193-1
... Abstract This article describes the types of closure mechanisms, including plasticity-induced, roughness-induced, oxide-induced, and fretting-debris-induced. It discusses test techniques used to establish a valid threshold value for aluminum alloy crack growth thresholds, steel crack growth...
Abstract
This article describes the types of closure mechanisms, including plasticity-induced, roughness-induced, oxide-induced, and fretting-debris-induced. It discusses test techniques used to establish a valid threshold value for aluminum alloy crack growth thresholds, steel crack growth thresholds, and titanium alloy crack growth thresholds. The near-threshold behavior of nickel-base superalloys is described. The article briefly reviews the threshold results for fiber-reinforced, whisker-reinforced, and particulate-re-inforced metal-matrix alloys. It explains the near-threshold fatigue crack propagation in welded joints and the fundamental considerations for modeling threshold behavior. The article concludes with a discussion on the effects of thresholds in the engineering design process.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2003
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13a.a0003668
EISBN: 978-1-62708-182-5
... on the sensitivity of the material to the given environment and the occurrence of various static stress- fracture mechanisms. The environmental effects are quite strong above some threshold for SCC ( K ISCC ) and may be negligible below this level ( K ISCC is the stress-intensity threshold for plane- strain...
Abstract
This article discusses the basic approach for predicting the corrosion-fatigue life of structural components. It describes two types of tests that are normally used in combination: cycles-to-failure tests, which focus on crack initiation, and crack propagation tests, which focus on crack growth rates under cyclic load. The article examines corrosion-fatigue cracking along with the effects of cracking due to stress corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement, which often occur together. It explains how test parameters such as loading and environmental conditions impact crack growth mechanisms and data interpretation.
Book Chapter
Digital Imaging
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 9
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2004
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v09.a0003757
EISBN: 978-1-62708-177-1
... issues in digital imaging is the comparison of resolution between film and electronic sensors. The following sections aim at clarifying some of the aspects of this discussion. Photographic Film Photographic film was the only practical image storage medium for nearly a century. Film sensitivity...
Abstract
This article reviews the main theoretical and practical aspects of sequence normally followed in digital image-acquisition, processing, analysis, and output for material characterization. It discusses the main methods of digital imaging, image processing, and analysis, as applied to microscopy of materials. The article describes the basic concepts of sampling and resolution and quantization of light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. It discusses the acquisition of a digital image that accurately represents the sample under observation and output of the image to a printer. The methods used to enhance the digital image and to extract quantitative information are also described. Different types of image segmentation, namely, adaptive segmentation and contour-based segmentation, are reviewed. The article also presents case studies on the application of image processing and analysis to materials characterization.
Book Chapter
Fatigue Resistance and Microstructure of Ferrous Alloys
Available to PurchaseBook: Fatigue and Fracture
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 19
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1996
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v19.a0002396
EISBN: 978-1-62708-193-1
... strengthening Thermomechanical processing Selective service processing Fatigue resistance is evaluated in terms of: Cyclic stability Resistance to crack initiation and propagation Notch sensitivity General Trends in Cyclic Behavior In this section, the spectrum of properties...
Abstract
This article reviews general trends in the cyclic response for representative commercial alloys to establish the spectrum of cyclic properties attainable through microstructural alteration. Individual alloy classes are examined in detail to assess the understanding of relationships between microstructure and fatigue resistance. These alloys classes include ferritic-pearlitic alloys, martensitic alloys, maraging steels, and metastable austenitic alloys. The article also discusses the role of internal defects and selective surface processing in influencing fatigue performance.
Book Chapter
Effect of Surface Conditions and Processing on Fatigue Performance
Available to PurchaseBook: Fatigue and Fracture
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 19
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1996
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v19.a0002371
EISBN: 978-1-62708-193-1
... residual stresses in the same direction as applied external stress can significantly reduce the threshold of crack initiation in sensitive materials/environmental conditions. Complex surface conditions, such as those produced by carburizing and subsequent case hardening, exhibit the same trend, although...
Abstract
This article presents an approach to characterize the effects of surface treatments to enhance fatigue properties, with particular concern for wear, corrosion, and thermal effects. It discusses the considerations in selecting fabrication or subsequent surface processing procedures to improve fatigue resistance in terms of their respective effects on fatigue performance. The article details the experimental data sets representing specific materials, typical test geometries, and a range of different processing methods used to enhance resistance as compared to results for laboratory tests.
Book: Composites
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 21
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2001
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v21.a0003445
EISBN: 978-1-62708-195-5
... to be noncritical, due to the static load sensitivity of composite structures to stress concentration. In addition, the load level threshold at which composites become sensitive to cyclic loading is a very high percentage of their static failure load. Because this threshold is so high and most vehicles do...
Abstract
This article describes the role of the full-scale testing in assessing composite structural systems of aircraft and qualifying them for in-service use. The typical full-scale tests include static, durability, and damage tolerance. The article discusses the parameters to be considered when developing the basic requirements for the static test. These parameters consist of material considerations, moisture and temperature effects, structure size, load application alternatives, instrumentation requirements, test procedure considerations, ultimate load requirements, and test results correlation. The basic requirements common for durability and damage tolerance tests, including environmental effects and inspection requirements, are also discussed.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006462
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
... the sensitivity level of the inspection method as well as the rejectable flaw size. An example of a specification requirement is given in Table 1 ; the specification is based on longitudinal wave inspection using flat-bottom holes (FBH). It defines the ultrasonic inspection requirements for product over 13...
Abstract
Both nondestructive testing (NDT) and nondestructive evaluation (NDE) use noninvasive measurement techniques to gain information about defects and various properties of materials, components, and structures. This article begins with a discussion on the historical development of quantitative measurement techniques, evaluation reliability, and quantitative interpretation of nondestructive inspection methods. The common nondestructive evaluation methods, along with their uses and limitations, are summarized in a table. The article conceptually illustrates the interplay of NDE and fracture mechanics in the damage tolerant approach. It concludes with information on pressure vessel applications that can be separated into three protocols used by military nuclear power, commercial nuclear power, and non-nuclear pressure vessels and/or fired boilers.
Book: Fatigue and Fracture
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 19
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1996
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v19.a0002361
EISBN: 978-1-62708-193-1
... load. In many engineering alloy/environment systems, because the fatigue process can efficiently rupture the protective surface oxide films and facilitate access to corrosive environments and produce new metal surfaces, threshold stress intensities for cracking to occur are often lower under corrosion...
Abstract
Corrosion fatigue refers to the phenomenon of cracking in materials under the combined actions of fatigue loading and a corrosive environment. This article focuses on the various mechanisms of corrosion fatigue, namely, hydrogen-assisted cracking, anodic dissolution, and surface energy reduction. It discusses the variables affecting corrosion fatigue. The effect of fatigue load frequency, environment, grain size, stress ratio, waveform, and temperature fatigue crack growth are also discussed.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2003
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13a.a0003667
EISBN: 978-1-62708-182-5
... a multifaceted technical activity. Research investigations on the phenomenon range from studies of crack nucleation and growth, including such parameters as incubation time, crack growth rates, and threshold stress intensities, to studies on the relative susceptibility of materials to hydrogen embrittlement...
Abstract
This article begins with a discussion on the classification of hydrogen embrittlement and likely sources of hydrogen and stress. The article describes several hydrogen embrittlement test methods, including cantilever beam tests, wedge-opening load tests, contoured double-cantilever beam tests, rising step-load tests, and slow strain rate tensile tests. It also describes the interpretation of test results and how to control hydrogen embrittlement during production.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2003
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13a.a0003666
EISBN: 978-1-62708-182-5
... aspects of the tests, such as method of loading and specimen size. These mechanical aspects can have variable effects on the initiation and propagation lifetimes and can influence estimates of a threshold stress. Therefore, an apparent threshold stress for SCC is not a material property, and threshold...
Abstract
This article describes the incubation, nucleation, and propagation of stress-corrosion cracking and how to evaluate it using standard tests. It discusses constant-strain, constant-load, bending, and uniaxial tension testing and how they compare when evaluating smooth and precracked test specimens under elastic-strain, plastic-strain, and residual-stress conditions. The article provides guidance on specimen selection and preparation, strain rate, and test equipment. It also examines service and laboratory test environments and provides detailed information on how to test various steels and alloys and how to interpret test results.
Book Chapter
Fatigue and Fracture Properties of Cast Steels
Available to PurchaseBook: Fatigue and Fracture
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 19
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1996
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v19.a0002398
EISBN: 978-1-62708-193-1
... to 0.50 for smooth bars. The data given in Table 1 indicate that this endurance ratio is largely independent of strength, although the endurance ratio tends to decrease at higher tensile strengths. Fatigue notch sensitivity of several cast and wrought steels (<italic>R</italic>=−1) Table 1...
Abstract
This article summarizes the general fatigue and fracture properties of cast steels, namely, toughness, fatigue, and component design factors such as section size and discontinuities. It describes the various factors that influence fatigue of cast steels. These factors include section size, defect size, stress modes, and waveform types. The article discusses various fracture mechanics in cast steels: cyclic stress-strain behavior and low- and high-cycle fatigue life behavior; plane-stress fracture toughness; plane-strain fracture toughness; constant-amplitude fatigue crack initiation and growth; and variable-amplitude fatigue crack initiation and growth.
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