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surface crystallography
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Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1986
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0001769
EISBN: 978-1-62708-178-8
... Abstract Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) is a technique for investigating the crystallography of surfaces and overlayers adsorbed on surfaces. This article describes the principles of diffraction from surfaces, and elucidates the method of sample preparation to achieve diffraction...
Abstract
Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) is a technique for investigating the crystallography of surfaces and overlayers adsorbed on surfaces. This article describes the principles of diffraction from surfaces, and elucidates the method of sample preparation to achieve diffraction patterns. The article describes the limitations of surface sensitive electron diffraction and discusses the applications of LEED with examples.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006655
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... Abstract Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) is a technique for investigating the crystallography of surfaces and overlayers adsorbed on surfaces. This article provides a brief account of LEED, covering the principles and measurements of diffraction from surfaces. Some of the processes...
Abstract
Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) is a technique for investigating the crystallography of surfaces and overlayers adsorbed on surfaces. This article provides a brief account of LEED, covering the principles and measurements of diffraction from surfaces. Some of the processes involved in sample preparation are described. In addition, the article discusses the limitations of surface-sensitive electron diffraction and the applications of LEED with examples.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006675
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... cantilever probes made of various materials Laser light Images of surface topographical features or other near-field and far-field interactions between probe and sample surface 0.2–10 nm 10–80 pm Biological molecules, biomaterials, cells, crystallography, electrochemistry, polymer chemistry, thin-film...
Abstract
This article is an overview of the division Surface Analysis of this volume. The division covers various developed surface-analysis techniques, such as scanning probe and atomic force microscopy. The division focuses on the analysis of surface layers that are less than 100 nm. A quick reference summary of surface-analysis methods is presented in this article.
Image
in Crystallographic Analysis by Electron Backscatter Diffraction in the Scanning Electron Microscope
> Materials Characterization
Published: 15 December 2019
Fig. 2 Electron backscatter diffraction maps obtained from a twin roll cast Fe-Al-Ni alloy that was annealed at 1000 °C (1830 °F). (a) Inverse pole figure map with respect to the surface normal. (b) Phase discrimination map with NiAl shown in blue, Ni 3 Al in red, and NiAl martensite in yellow
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Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006654
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... Abstract This article discusses the techniques and applications of synchrotron x-ray diffraction, providing information on x-ray generation, monochromation, and crystallography. X-ray diffraction techniques covered include single-crystal and powder diffraction. Some of the factors involved...
Abstract
This article discusses the techniques and applications of synchrotron x-ray diffraction, providing information on x-ray generation, monochromation, and crystallography. X-ray diffraction techniques covered include single-crystal and powder diffraction. Some of the factors involved in the construction and development of macromolecular x-ray crystallography are also described.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006678
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... Laser light Images of surface topographical features or other near-field and far-field interactions between probe and sample surface 0.2–10 nm 10–80 pm Biological molecules, biomaterials, cells, crystallography, electrochemistry, polymer chemistry, thin-film studies, nanomaterials, nanotechnology...
Abstract
This article briefly discusses popular techniques for metals characterization. It begins with a description of the most common techniques for determining chemical composition of metals, namely X-ray fluorescence, optical emission spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, high-temperature combustion, and inert gas fusion. This is followed by a section on techniques for determining the atomic structure of crystals, namely X-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction, and electron diffraction. Types of electron microscopies most commonly used for microstructural analysis of metals, such as scanning electron microscopy, electron probe microanalysis, and transmission electron microscopy, are then reviewed. The article contains tables listing analytical methods used for characterization of metals and alloys and surface analysis techniques. It ends by discussing the objective of metallography.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006631
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... of crystallography and the symmetry of crystalline substances, as well as some aspects and formulas of XRD theory ( Ref 1 – 13 ). Crystal Symmetry The crystalline state of a substance is characterized by the three-dimensional periodicity of atomic and molecular arrangement. This feature underlies...
Abstract
This article provides a detailed account of the concepts of single-crystal x-ray diffraction (XRD). It begins with a historical review of XRD methods, followed by a description of the various factors involved in crystal symmetry. The article then focuses on the phase problem in x-ray structural analysis and validation of the structural model. Some of the factors to be considered for performing experimental procedure are provided. The article presents several examples of applications of single-crystal XRD. The following sections cover the crystallographic problem in terms of structural analysis, software programs for crystal structure solution and refinement, and visualization of crystal structures. The article ends with a discussion on various databases available for single-crystal XRD analysis.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2003
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13a.a0003673
EISBN: 978-1-62708-182-5
... resistance of stainless steels is based on the protective nature of the surface oxide film. The physical and chemical properties of the oxide film and the service environment determine the corrosion resistance of the alloy. Additional details on the stainless steels are presented in the following articles...
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006656
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
..., and applications and interpretation of micro-XRD. micro X-ray diffraction XRD detectors Overview Introduction X-ray diffraction (XRD) has been a fundamental tool in the field of crystallography as applied to practically every industrial sector for over a century. Conventionally, XRD...
Abstract
This article discusses various concepts of micro x-ray diffraction (XRD) used for the examination of materials in situ. The discussion covers the principles, equipment used, sample preparation procedure, considerations for calibrating a detector, steps for performing data analysis, and applications and interpretation of micro-XRD.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 9
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2004
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v09.a0009076
EISBN: 978-1-62708-177-1
..., “Sample Preparation and Mounting,” in this Volume, and viewed normal to the xz or yz plane. If the features that are desired to be analyzed are noticeable on the surface of a composite, such as a fracture area, this area is ideally centered in the section that is taken. This provides assurance...
Abstract
This article describes the various aspects relating to the selection and preparation of ultrathin-section specimens of fiber-reinforced polymeric composites for examination by transmitted light microscopy. It provides information on the contrast-enhancement methods used by transmitted-light microscopy and optimization of microscope conditions. Examples of composite ultrathin sections analyzed using transmitted-light microscopy contrast methods are also presented.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006660
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
..., identification is performed through the specific crystallography. Figure 2 is an example of EBSD mapping of a multiphase Fe-Al-Ni alloy that was twin roll cast and then annealed ( Ref 1 ). Figure 2(a) is an inverse pole figure (IPF) map with respect to the sample surface normal. The orientation data...
Abstract
The electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) technique has proven to be very useful in the measurement of crystallographic textures, orientation relationships between phases, and both plastic and elastic strains. This article focuses on backscatter diffraction in a scanning electron microscope and describes transmission Kikuchi diffraction. It begins with a discussion on the origins of EBSD and the collection of EBSD patterns. This is followed by sections providing information on EBSD spatial resolution and system operation of EBSD. Various factors pertinent to perform an EBSD experiment are then covered. The article further describes the processes involved in sample preparation that are critical to the success or usefulness of an EBSD experiment. It also discusses the applications of EBSD to bulk samples and the development of EBSD indexing methods.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 9
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2004
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v09.a0003736
EISBN: 978-1-62708-177-1
... of the martensite transformation: orientation relationships between parent and product phases and surface tilting around the martensite crystal. Due to the absence of diffusion in the transformation, the composition of the parent austenite and product martensite are the same. Additionally, the martensite...
Abstract
Martensite is a metastable structure that forms during athermal (nonisothermal) conditions. This article reviews the crystallographic theory, morphologies, orientation relationships, habit plane, and transformation temperature of ferrous martensite microstructures. It examines the stages of the tempering process involved in ferrous martensite. The article also describes the formation of the martensite structure in nonferrous systems. It concludes with a discussion on shape memory alloys.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 9
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2004
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v09.a0003739
EISBN: 978-1-62708-177-1
... in nonferrous systems. bainite ferrous metals nonferrous metals surface relief BAINITE describes the resultant microstructure in steels of the decomposition of austenite (γ) into ferrite (α) and cementite (Fe 3 C) in the temperature range above the martensitic transformation and below...
Abstract
This article provides a discussion on the transformations of various categories of bainite in ferrous systems. These include upper bainite, lower bainite, inverse bainite, granular bainite, and columnar bainite. The article also provides information on the bainite transformations in nonferrous systems.
Book: Casting
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 15
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005335
EISBN: 978-1-62708-187-0
... Abstract This article discusses the physical metallurgy of cast cobalt alloys with an emphasis on the crystallography, compositions, phases and microstructure, and properties. Cobalt alloys are cast by several different foundry methods. The article describes the argon-oxygen decarburization...
Abstract
This article discusses the physical metallurgy of cast cobalt alloys with an emphasis on the crystallography, compositions, phases and microstructure, and properties. Cobalt alloys are cast by several different foundry methods. The article describes the argon-oxygen decarburization and continuous casting process. It provides information on castability and quality of the casted alloys. The article details the postcasting treatment, including heat treatment, hot isostatic pressing, and coatings. It summarizes the applications of cast cobalt alloys.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006671
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
.... , An Introduction to the Methods of Optical Crystallography , Holt Rhinehart and Winston , 1961 • Briggs D. and Seah M.P. , Practical Surface Analysis , John Wiley & Sons , 1983 , 10.1016/0002-9610(83)90338-0 • Cullity B.D. , Elements of X-Ray Diffraction , Addison-Wesley...
Abstract
The characterization, testing, and nondestructive evaluation of ceramics and glasses are vital to manufacturing control, property improvement, failure prevention, and quality assurance. This article provides a broad overview of characterization methods and their relationship to property control, both in the production and use of ceramics and glasses. Important aspects covered include the means for characterizing ceramics and glasses, the corresponding rationale behind them, and relationship of chemistry, phases, and microconstituents to engineering properties. The article also describes the effects that the structure of raw ceramic materials and green products and processing parameters have on the ultimate structure and properties of the processed piece. The effects that trace chemistry and processing parameters have on glass properties are discussed. The article describes mechanical tests and failure analysis techniques used for ceramics.
Book: Fractography
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 12
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2024
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v12.a0007034
EISBN: 978-1-62708-387-4
... growth. Note the overlap between these two regimes at larger-than-typical length scales due to the presence of microtexture. The vertical line denotes the common definition for an engineering crack (~0.7 mm, or ~ 1 32 in., surface length). Fig. 2 Crystallographic structure and slip...
Abstract
This article presents a detailed discussion on the microstructures, physical metallurgy, classification, deformation behavior, and fracture modes of titanium alloys. It illustrates the effect of microstructure and texture on the fracture topography and fracture behavior of titanium alloys with a variety of relevant examples.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4E
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04e.a0006277
EISBN: 978-1-62708-169-6
... Abstract This article describes the integration of thermodynamic modeling, mobility database, and phase-transformation crystallography into phase-field modeling and its combination with transformation texture modeling to predict phase equilibrium, phase transformation, microstructure evolution...
Abstract
This article describes the integration of thermodynamic modeling, mobility database, and phase-transformation crystallography into phase-field modeling and its combination with transformation texture modeling to predict phase equilibrium, phase transformation, microstructure evolution, and transformation texture development during heat treatment of multicomponent alpha/beta and beta titanium alloys. It includes quantitative description of Burgers orientation relationship and path, discussion of lattice correspondence between the alpha and beta phases, and determination of the total number of Burgers correspondence variants and orientation variants. The article also includes calculation of the transformation strain with contributions from defect structures developed at alpha/beta interfaces as a precipitates grow in size. In the CALculation of PHAse Diagram (CALPHAD) framework, the Gibbs free energies and atomic mobilities are established as functions of temperature, pressure, and composition and serve directly as key inputs of any microstructure modeling. The article presents examples of the integrated computation tool set in simulating microstructural evolution.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006643
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... image. Problems arise for proteins, with their unusually large unit cells and the possible large sensitivity to radiation. Protein crystallography beamlines, based on large, fast, and accurate detectors, are designed to perform automatic single-crystal studies on protein crystals as small as a few cubic...
Abstract
This article describes the methods of X-ray diffraction analysis, the types of information that can be obtained, and its interpretation. The discussion covers the basic theories of X-rays and various types of diffraction experiments, namely single-crystal methods for polychromatic and monochromatic beams, powder diffraction methods, and the Rietveld method.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 9
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2004
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v09.a0003735
EISBN: 978-1-62708-177-1
... of atoms across the interface between parent and product phases. Furthermore, while surface upheaval is commonly observed during massive transformations due to the mechanical deformation caused by volumetric differences between parent and product, no evidence has been presented in the literature...
Abstract
Massive transformations are thermally activated phenomena and exhibit nucleation and growth characteristics primarily controlled by the interface between parent and product phases that is generally considered incoherent. This article focuses on the nucleation and growth kinetics involved in massive transformations and illustrates the resulting phases and structures in ferrous and nonferrous metals and alloys.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003252
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... Abstract Microstructural analysis is the combined characterization of the morphology, elemental composition, and crystallography of microstructural features through the use of a microscope. This article reviews three types of the most commonly used electron microscopies in metallurgical studies...
Abstract
Microstructural analysis is the combined characterization of the morphology, elemental composition, and crystallography of microstructural features through the use of a microscope. This article reviews three types of the most commonly used electron microscopies in metallurgical studies, namely scanning electron microscopy, electron probe microanalysis, and transmission electron microscopy. It briefly describes the operating principles, instrumentation which includes energy dispersive X-ray detectors, spatial resolution, typical use of the techniques, elemental analysis detection threshold and precision, limitations, sample requirements, and the capabilities of related techniques.
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