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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4E
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04e.a0006283
EISBN: 978-1-62708-169-6
... hydrogen embrittlement mechanical properties quenching scaling solution heat treatment straightening stress-relief anneal titanium titanium alloys TITANIUM ALLOYS are classified into three groups with the following properties: Alpha alloys Non-heat-treatable for significant...
Abstract
This article provides a detailed discussion on heat treatment of titanium alloys such as alpha alloys, alpha-beta alloys, and beta and near-beta alloys. Common processes include stress-relief, annealing, solution treating, aging, quenching, and age hardening. It provides information on the effects of alloying elements on alpha/beta transformation. The article also discusses the heat treating procedures, and the furnaces used for heat treating titanium and titanium alloys.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003178
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... backward and forward spinning of tube Fig. 12 Large-radius rollers staggered radially for forward spinning of tube, showing how each roller takes a portion of the total bite ( X ) Fig. 14 Principles of straightening by bending. In all methods shown, the bar is supported at points A and...
Abstract
This article discusses the mechanics, surface preparation and principles of metal forming operations such as drawing, bending (draw bending, compression bending, roll bending, and stretch bending), spinning, and straightening of bars, tubes, wires, rods and structural shapes. The article also discusses the machines and tools, including dies and mandrels, and lubricants used for these metal forming operations.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003122
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... after an elevated-temperature shaping process such as casting or extrusion and for which mechanical properties have been stabilized by room-temperature aging. It also applies to products that are flattened or straightened after cooling from the shaping process, for which the effects of the cold work...
Abstract
This article describes the systems for designating the aluminum and aluminum alloys that incorporate the product forms (wrought, casting or foundry ingots) and its respective temper for strain-hardened alloys, heat-treatable alloys and annealed alloys. All these systems are covered by American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard H35.1. Furthermore, the article provides a short note on the designation of unregistered tempers.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4E
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04e.a0006285
EISBN: 978-1-62708-169-6
... stretching a controlled amount (permanent set 1.5–3% for sheet and plate, 1–3% for rolled or cold-finished rod and bar, 1–5% for hand or ring forging and rolled ring). The products receive no further straightening after stretching.  W52 Solution heat treated (unstable temper) and stress relieved by...
Abstract
Annealing is an essential treatment in the fabrication of metal parts and semiproducts. This article discusses the processes involved in annealing, namely, recovery, recrystallization, and grain coarsening. It lists the heat treatment conditions of processed aluminum alloys. It provides information on the types of heat treatment, which include preheating, full anneal, stabilization, and stoving. The article describes the steps involved for achieving the age-hardening effect and the strongest hardening effect in aluminum. The steps to increase the strength of aluminum alloys by extremely fine, dispersed second-phase particles are: solution heat treatment, quenching, and age hardening. Finally, the article also discusses the process parameters of annealing, including the effect of strain, effect of temperature, effect of heating rate, and the effect of alloy elements, and the effect of annealing on anisotropy.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4E
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04e.a0006288
EISBN: 978-1-62708-169-6
... amount for stress relief, and naturally aged (no further straightening after stretching) 2024, Alclad 2024, 2l24, 2219 Plate; rolled or cold-finished bar (2024 only) T3510 Solution heat treated, stretched a controlled amount for stress relief, and naturally aged (no further straightening after...
Abstract
This article focuses on the aging characteristics of solution and precipitation heat treated aluminum alloy systems and their corresponding types. It includes information on aluminum-copper systems, aluminum-copper-magnesium systems, aluminum-magnesium-silicon systems, aluminum-zinc-magnesium systems, aluminum-zinc-magnesium-copper systems, and aluminum-lithium alloys.
Book: Casting
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 15
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005220
EISBN: 978-1-62708-187-0
... placed together. Its characteristic fluorescence in the electron beam and its chemical composition are further identifying characteristics. Fig. 2 SEM image of intermetallics (eutectic silicon and β-iron platelets) nucleated and grown on bifilms, causing the bifilms to straighten and create long...
Abstract
Analysis of bifilms provides a simple, powerful, and elegant concept to explain many features of the metallurgy of castings. This article describes the effects of bifilms in metals. Mechanisms for the entrainment of bifilms are reviewed. The article describes the effect of furling and unfurling on mechanical properties of the solidified cast metal. It provides a discussion on the mechanisms of unfurling to determine the casting properties of the metals. These include gas precipitation, shrinkage, linear contraction, dendrite pushing, and nucleation and growth of intermetallics. The article also describes the role of bifilm defects in fracture.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4E
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04e.a0006251
EISBN: 978-1-62708-169-6
Abstract
The most widely accepted alloy and temper designation system for aluminum and its alloys is maintained by the Aluminum Association and recognized by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) as the American National Standard Alloy and Temper Designation Systems for Aluminum (ANSI H35.1). This article provides a detailed discussion on the alloy and temper designation system for aluminum and its alloys. The Aluminum Association alloy designations are grouped as wrought and cast alloys. Lengthy tables provide information on alloying elements in wrought aluminum and aluminum alloys; nominal composition of aluminum alloy castings; typical mechanical properties of wrought and cast aluminum alloys in various temper conditions; and cross references to former and current cast aluminum alloy designations.
Book: Casting
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 15
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005230
EISBN: 978-1-62708-187-0
... known as T6 or T7 temper (depending on aging time), while the latter (natural aging followed by artificial aging) is known as T61 temper. In practice, foundries frequently refer to either as T6. The advantage of the T61 temper is that there is time to straighten the casting if needed. While proper...
Abstract
This article provides an overview of heat treatment processes, namely, solution heat treatment, quenching, and natural and artificial aging. It contains a table that lists various heat treatment tempers commonly practiced for nonferrous castings. The article describes microstructural changes that occur due to the heat treatment of cast alloys.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006467
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
... more or less directly proportional to the change in stress up to the elastic limit of the ferrous product. These systems cannot be used to inspect hot rolled or annealed bars unless they have been subjected to some uniform cold work, such as rotary straightening for round material or planar-type...
Abstract
This article focuses on nondestructive inspection of steel bars. The primary objective in the nondestructive inspection of steel bars and wire is to detect conditions in the material that may be detrimental to the satisfactory end use of the product. The article discusses various types of flaws encountered in the inspection of steel bars, including porosity, inclusions, scabs, cracks, seams, and laps. Inspection methods, such as magnetic-particle inspection. liquid penetrant inspection, ultrasonic inspection, and electromagnetic inspection, of steel bars are also described. The article provides a discussion on electromagnetic systems, eddy-current systems, and magnetic permeability systems for detection of flaws on steel bars. It concludes with a description of nondestructive inspection of steel billets.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004008
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
....) and smaller in diameter are cold drawn from coil stock by various methods. With one method, cold-drawn coils produced on the various machines described previously are straightened and cut into bars in a separate operation on machines designed for that purpose. Some in-line methods and equipment begin...
Abstract
The drawing process, one of the oldest metal forming operations, allows excellent surface finishes and closely controlled dimensions to be obtained in long products that have constant cross sections. This article discusses the basic mechanics and preparation steps of drawing. It presents an overview of the processes, equipment, dies and die materials, and lubrication associated with drawing of rod, wire, bar, and tube. The article also provides a discussion on the design considerations and manufacturing of commercial superconducting multifilamentary conductors.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001235
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... process has other useful applications, such as relieving tensile stresses that contribute to stress-corrosion cracking, forming and straightening of metal parts, and testing the adhesion of silver plate on steel. When individual particles of shot in a high-velocity...
Abstract
Shot peening is a method of cold working in which compressive stresses are induced in the exposed surface layers of metallic parts by the impingement of a stream of shot, directed at the metal surface at high velocity under controlled conditions. This article focuses on the major variables, applications, and limitations of shot peening and provides information on peening action, surface coverage, and peening intensity. It discusses the equipment used for shot recycling and shot propelling as well as the types and sizes of media used for peening. The article describes the problems in shot peening of production parts. It concludes with information on the SAE standard J442 that describes the test strips, strip holder, and gage used in measuring shot peening intensity.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4E
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04e.a0006274
EISBN: 978-1-62708-169-6
Abstract
This article describes the different types of precipitation and transformation processes and their effects that can occur during heat treatment of various nonferrous alloys. The nonferrous alloys are aluminum alloys, copper alloys, magnesium alloys, nickel alloys, titanium alloys, cobalt alloys, zinc alloys, and heat treatable silver alloys, gold alloys, lead alloys, and tin alloys. It also provides a detailed discussion on the effects due to precipitation and transformation processes in these non-ferrous alloys.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004000
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
Abstract
Titanium alloys are forged into a variety of shapes and types of forgings, with a broad range of final part forging design criteria based on the intended end-product application. This article begins with a discussion on the classes of titanium alloys, their forgeability, and factors affecting forgeability. It describes the forging techniques, equipment, and common processing elements associated with titanium alloy forging. The processing elements include the preparation of forging stock, preheating of the stock, die heating, lubrication, forging process, trimming and repair, cleaning, heat treatment, and inspection. The article presents a discussion on titanium alloy precision forgings and concludes with information on the forging of advanced titanium materials and titanium aluminides.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003237
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... bonding, and forming operations, such as shaft straightening and punch press operations. In general, AE inspection can be considered whenever the process stresses the material and produces permanent deformation. In structural testing, AE inspection is used on pressure vessels, storage tanks, pipelines...
Abstract
Acoustic-emission inspection detects and analyzes minute acoustic-emission signals generated by discontinuities in materials under applied stress. This article discusses the types of acoustic emissions (continuous-type emissions and burst-type emissions) and applications, including laboratory testing, production testing, and structural testing. The article includes a section in which the characteristics of acoustic emission inspection are compared with other nondestructive testing methods. Further, it briefly reviews the key elements of the acoustic-emission instrumentation, which includes the acoustic-emission resonant sensor.
Book: Casting
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 15
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005296
EISBN: 978-1-62708-187-0
... have been reported ( Ref 18 , 19 ). Fig. 13 Comparison of spray systems used in continuous casting. (a) Conventional spray. (b) Air-water mist spray. Source: Ref 17 The straightening operation on curved strand casters has required special design and operating control. In general...
Abstract
This article outlines the advantages of the steel continuous casting, along with its developments and challenges for improvement. It describes the process of the steel continuous casting. The article provides a description of the design and layout of a steelmaking facility for continuous casting of steel. It reviews the trends in the steel industry, such as near-net shape casting, the use of tundish metallurgy, and pouring stream protection. The article discusses the use and capabilities of different molds for steel continuous casting. These include thin-wall tube-type molds, solid molds, and plate molds. The article explains the operations for productivity improvements and quality improvements in steel continuous casting. It reviews the applications of horizontal continuous casting in casting steel. An emphasis on the development of continuous casting depending on control systems and automation, with the objective of maintaining high quality and high productivity, is also provided.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4E
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04e.a0006260
EISBN: 978-1-62708-169-6
Abstract
Quenching refers to the rapid cooling of metal from the solution treating temperature, typically between 465 and 565 deg C (870 and 1050 deg F) for aluminum alloys. This article provides an overview on the appropriate quenching process and factors used to determine suitable cooling rate. It describes the quench sensitivity and severity of alloys, quench mechanisms and the different types of quenchants used in immersion, spray, and fog quenching. The article provides a detailed description of the quench-factor analysis that mainly includes residual stress and distortion, which can be controlled by proper racking. It concludes with information on agitation and the quench tank system used in the quenching of aluminum alloys.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 September 2014
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04b.a0005950
EISBN: 978-1-62708-166-5
Abstract
This article describes the fundamental concepts of heat treatment simulation, including the physical events and their interactions, the heat treatment simulation software, and the commonly used simulation strategies. It summarizes material data needed for heat treatment simulations and discusses reliable data sources as well as experimental and computational methods for material data acquisition. The article provides information on the process data needed for accurate heat treatment simulation and the methods for their determination. Methods for validating heat treatment simulations are also discussed with an emphasis on the underlying philosophy for the selection and design of validation tests. The article also discusses the applications, capabilities, and limitations of heat treatment simulations via selected industrial case studies for a better understanding of the effect of microstructure, distortion, residual stress, and cracking in gears, shafts, and bearing rings.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003227
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... sulfur to enhance machinability. Figure 9 shows unidentified stringers on the fracture surface of a 4340 steel forging. Overload cracking occurred during straightening after the forging had been heat treated to a tensile strength of 1380 to 1520 MPa (200 to 220 ksi). Porosity is the name applied...
Abstract
This article describes various evaluation techniques of fractography such as visual inspection, macroscopic and microscopic examinations that are used to resolve different aspects of failure. It gives a brief description and pictorial representation of various defects leading to fracture of metals, including laps, seams, cold shuts, cracks, inclusions, porosity, fatigue, and stress corrosion cracking.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003996
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... alloy forgings are often straightened between solution treatment and quench and artificial aging. Straightening is typically accomplished cold using either hand (frequently press assisted) or die straightening techniques. Many aluminum alloy open- and closed-die forgings in the 2 xxx and 7 xxx...
Abstract
This article begins with discussion on forgeability and the factors affecting the forgeability of aluminum and aluminum alloys. It describes the types of forging methods and equipment and reviews critical elements in the overall aluminum forging process: die materials, die design, and die manufacture. The article discusses the critical aspects of various manufacturing elements of aluminum alloy forging, including the preparation of the forging stock, preheating stock, die heating, lubrication, trimming, forming and repair, cleaning, heat treatment, and inspection. It concludes with a discussion on the forging of advanced aluminum materials and aluminum alloy precision forgings.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003177
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... forming, drawing of irregular-shape parts, straightening, operations requiring high and variable forces, and operations requiring variable or partial strokes In most mechanical presses, a flywheel is the major source of energy applied to the slides by cranks, gears, eccentrics, or linkages...
Abstract
This article describes the presses that are mechanically or hydraulically powered and used for producing sheet, strip, and plate from sheet metal. It also presents the JIC standards for presses, compares the presses based on power source, details the selection criteria and provides information on the various drive systems and the auxiliary equipment. It describes the selection of die materials and lubricants for sheet metal forming and provides information on the lubrication mechanisms and selection with a list of lubricant types for forming of specific sheet materials of ferrous or nonferrous metals. The article reviews the various types of forming processes such as blanking, piercing, fine-edge blanking, press bending, press forming, forming by multiple-slide machines, deep drawing, stretch forming, spinning, rubber-pad forming, three-roll forming, contour roll forming, drop hammer forming, explosive forming, electromagnetic forming, and superplastic forming.