This article briefly reviews the analysis methods for spalling of striking tools with emphasis on field tests conducted by A.H. Burn and on the laboratory tests of H.O. McIntire and G.K. Manning and of J.W. Lodge. It focuses on the metallography and fractography of spalling. The macrostructure and microstructure of spall cavities are described, along with some aspects of the numerous specifications for striking/struck tools. The article also describes the availability of spall-resistant metals and the safety aspects of striking/struck tools in railway applications.

This article provides a discussion on the structural ceramics used in gas turbine components, the automotive and aerospace industries, or as heat exchangers in various segments of the chemical and power generation industries. It covers the fundamental aspects of chemical corrosion and describes the corrosion resistance characteristics of specific classes of refractories and structural ceramics. The article also examines the prevention strategies that minimize corrosion failures of both classes of materials.

Contact fatigue is a surface-pitting-type failure commonly found in ball or roller bearings. This article discusses the mechanisms of contact fatigue found in gears, cams, valves, rails, and gear couplings. It discusses the statistical analysis of rolling contact bearing-life tests. The article concludes with information on various approaches that improve the contact fatigue resistance of rolling contact systems.

Porcelain enamel is a fusion bonded glass coating that resists chemical and abrasive attack, provides thermal and electrical insulation, and improves aesthetic qualities. It is used on cast iron as well as steel and aluminum alloys. This article provides a review of the porcelain enameling process, the composition of frits, and the preparation of coating substrates. It also provides information on chemical, mechanical, and electrical properties and sheds light on process consistency and quality control.

Porcelain enamels are glass coatings applied primarily to products or parts made of sheet steel, cast iron, or aluminum to improve appearance and to protect the metal surface. This article provides information on the types and properties of the porcelain enamels and frits for porcelain enameling. It describes the corrosion resistance of the porcelain enamels in a variety of environments. Evaluation of properties of the porcelain-enameled products to control specifications and quality of porcelain-enamel coatings is also reviewed. The article contains a table that lists the specific test methods for evaluating various properties of porcelain enamels.

This article discusses the physical signs of rolling-contact wear (RCW). It lists the major considerations in gear design and describes the mechanisms of RCW. The article provides a guide to rolling-contact fatigue (RCF) testing methods. It explains the steps involved in the processes of RCF and RCW.

Boriding is a thermochemical diffusion-based surface-hardening process that can be applied to a wide variety of ferrous, nonferrous, and cermet materials. It is performed on metal components as a solution for extending the life of metal parts that wear out too quickly in applications involving severe wear. This article presents a variety of methods and media used for boriding of ferrous materials, and explains their advantages, limitations, and applications. These methods include pack cementation boriding, gas boriding, plasma boriding, electroless salt bath boriding, electrolytic salt bath boriding, and fluidized-bed boriding. The article briefly describes the chemical vapor deposition process, which has emerged to be dominant among metal-boride deposition processes.

Boronizing is a case hardening process for metals to improve the wear life and galling resistance of metal surfaces. Boronizing can be carried out using several techniques. This article discusses the powder pack cementation process for carrying out boronizing. It describes the structures of boride layers in ferrous materials and boride-layer structures in nickel-base superalloys. The primary reason for boriding metals is to increase wear resistance against abrasion and erosion. The article reviews the wear resistance and coefficient of friction of boride layers, as well as galling resistance of borided surfaces. It concludes with a discussion on boronizing plus physical vapor deposition (PVD) overlay coating.

The corrosion issues in the compressor, combustor and turbine sections of industrial gas turbines used in steam production generally depend on the quality of the fuel, air, and water used in the engine than on the specific industrial application. This article focuses on the forms of corrosion and their preventive measures in the compressor, combustor and turbine sections of a steam turbine. The compressor section mainly suffers from aqueous corrosion; while in case of the combustor and turbine sections, which are made of nickel-base superalloys, high-temperature environmental attack in the form of high-temperature oxidation and hot corrosion are predominant. The effect of high-temperature oxidation and hot corrosion on the mechanical properties of superalloys is also discussed.

This article provides an overview of the corrosion theory relating to refractories on the basis of acid/base reactions, thermodynamics, and kinetic considerations. The tests to evaluate refractory corrosive wear are reviewed. The article describes the specific refractories used in steel, glass, aluminum, and chemical-resistant applications. Specific material issues that should be considered or evaluated when choosing or using refractory materials are discussed.

This article introduces process factors that influence die wear and lubrication for metal forming operations such as bending, spinning, stretching, deep drawing, and ironing. It discusses the effects of part shape, sheet thickness, tolerance requirements, sheet metal, and lubrication on shallow forming dies. The article describes the wear of material for dies to draw round and square cup-shaped metal parts in a press. It also discusses the effect of process conditions on the shallow forming dies.

Rolling-element bearings use rolling elements interposed between two raceways, and relative motion is permitted by the rotation of these elements. This article presents an overview of bearing materials, bearing-load ratings, and an examination of failed bearings. Rolling-element bearings are designed on the principle of rolling contact rather than sliding contact; frictional effects, although low, are not negligible, and lubrication is essential. The article lists the typical characteristics and causes of several types of failures. It describes failure by wear, failure by fretting, failure by corrosion, failure by plastic flow, failure by rolling-contact fatigue, and failure by damage. The article discusses the effects of fabrication practices, heat treatment and hardness of bearing components, and lubrication of rolling-element bearings with a few examples.

When metal is exposed to an oxidizing gas at elevated temperature, corrosion can occur by direct reaction with the gas, without the need for the presence of a liquid electrolyte. This type of corrosion is referred to as high-temperature gaseous corrosion. This article describes the various forms of high-temperature gaseous corrosion, namely, high-temperature oxidation, sulfidation, carburization, corrosion by hydrogen, and hot corrosion.

Rolling-contact fatigue (RCF) is a surface damage process due to the repeated application of stresses when the surfaces of two bodies roll on each other. This article briefly describes the various surface cracks caused by manufacturing processing faults or blunt impact loads on ceramic balls surfaces. It discusses the propagation of fatigue cracks involved in rolling contacts. The characteristics of various types of RCF test machines are summarized. The article concludes with a discussion on the various failure modes of silicon nitride in rolling contact. These include the spalling fatigue failure, the delamination failure, and the rolling-contact wear.

High-alloyed white cast irons are an important group of materials whose production must be considered separately from that of ordinary types of cast irons. The metallic matrix supporting the carbide phase in the high-alloy white cast irons can be adjusted by alloy content and heat treatment to develop proper balance between resistance to abrasion and toughness needed to withstand repeated impact. This article provides a brief discussion on the heat treatment, mechanical properties, and chemical compositions of high-alloy white cast irons such as nickel-chromium white irons and high-chromium white irons.

Alloys intended for use in high-temperature environments rely on the formation of a continuous, compact, slow-growing oxide layer for oxidation, and hot corrosion resistance. This article focuses on the issues related to high-temperature oxidation of superalloys used in gas turbine engine applications. It discusses the general methodologies used to evaluate oxidation resistance of materials. The article describes the performance characteristics of superalloys, single-crystal superalloys, and other high-temperature materials such as refractory metals and ceramics. It discusses hot corrosion of superalloys and airfoil degradation due to deposits resulting from ingested particles or sand. The article concludes with a discussion on the limitations of testing techniques and life prediction.

The high-alloyed white irons are primarily used for abrasion-resistant applications and are readily cast into the parts needed in machinery for crushing, grinding, and handling of abrasive materials. This article discusses three major groups of the high-alloy white cast irons: nickel-chromium white irons, chromium-molybdenum irons, and high-chromium white irons. Mechanical properties for three white irons representing each of these three general groups are presented as bar graphs. The article also describes the various heat treatments of a martensitic microstructure, including austenitization, quenching, tempering, annealing, and stress relieving.

The mechanism of contact fatigue can be understood in terms of several sources of stress concentration, or stress raisers, within the macroscopic Hertzian stress field. This article focuses primarily on rolling contact fatigue of hardened bearing steels. It discusses Hertzian shear stresses at and below the contact surfaces and briefly summarizes bearings and gear characteristics. The article provides an overview of the key types of gear and bearing steels. It analyzes two types of macropitting that result from the subsurface growth of fatigue cracks, namely, subsurface-origin macropitting and surface-origin macropitting. The article describes the factors influencing contact fatigue life of hardened steel bearings and gears, including hardness, inclusions, carbides, and residual stresses.

This article discusses the generic situation of steel reacting with the environments found in structures. Two environments are specifically discussed: atmospheric and cementitious. The article describes the utility of different corrosion protection methods for atmospheric corrosion and cementitious systems. It presents examples of problems that have arisen in the corrosion performance of steel.

This article discusses the advantages and disadvantages of field metallography and describes the important material characteristics and other aspects to be considered before performing any metallographic procedure. It investigates the various stages of sample preparation in the metallographic laboratory: grinding, polishing, etching, preparing a replica, and obtaining a small sample. The article also illustrates the applications of field metallography with case studies.