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Published: 30 September 2015
Fig. 2 Micrographs of tungsten powder during solid-state sintering, showing the decrease in porosity (black regions) and grain growth. Source: Ref 1
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Image
Published: 30 September 2015
Fig. 37 Idealized binary phase diagram for solid-state activated sintering. The mixture has a composition in a two-phase region at the sintering temperature. The activator A is nearly insoluble in the base B, but B is highly soluble in A. The phase diagram is rather similar
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Image
Published: 30 September 2015
Fig. 38 Relative density versus sintering temperature for activated solid-state and activated liquid-phase sintering of tungsten. Nickel is most effective as a pure activator, but when liquid copper is present, the nickel effectiveness is diluted by solubility in the liquid. Alternatively
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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 24
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 June 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v24.a0006557
EISBN: 978-1-62708-290-7
... parameters specific to the alloy system and selected processing technique. This article discusses the formation of defects within metal additive manufacturing, namely fusion-based processes and solid-state/sintering processes. Defects observed in fusion-based processes include lack of fusion, keyhole...
Abstract
The formation of defects within additive-manufactured (AM) components is a major concern for critical structural and cyclic load applications. Thus, understanding the mechanisms of defect formation in fusion-based processes is important for prescribing the appropriate process parameters specific to the alloy system and selected processing technique. This article discusses the formation of defects within metal additive manufacturing, namely fusion-based processes and solid-state/sintering processes. Defects observed in fusion-based processes include lack of fusion, keyhole collapse, gas porosity, solidification cracking, solid-state cracking, and surface-connected porosity. The types of defects in solid-state/sintering processes are sintering porosity and improper binder burnout. The article also discusses defect-mitigation strategies, such as postprocess machining, surface treatment, and postprocessing HIP to eliminate defects detrimental to properties from the as-built condition. The use of noncontact thermal, optical, and ultrasound techniques for inspecting AM components are also considered. The final section summarizes the knowledge gap in our understanding of the defects observed within AM components.
Book: Powder Metallurgy
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 7
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 September 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v07.a0006117
EISBN: 978-1-62708-175-7
... Abstract Sintering is a thermal treatment process in which a powder or a porous material, already formed into the required shape, is converted into a useful article with the requisite microstructure. Sintering can be classified as solid-state, viscous, liquid-phase, and pressure-assisted...
Abstract
Sintering is a thermal treatment process in which a powder or a porous material, already formed into the required shape, is converted into a useful article with the requisite microstructure. Sintering can be classified as solid-state, viscous, liquid-phase, and pressure-assisted (or pressure) sintering. This article provides information on the mechanisms and theoretical analysis of sintering and focuses on the types, mechanisms, process and microstructural variables, computer simulation, stages, and fundamentals of densification and grain growth of solid-state sintering and liquid-phase sintering. It describes the models for viscous sintering and the methods used in pressure-assisted sintering, namely, uniaxial hot pressing, hot isostatic pressing, sinter forging, and spark plasma sintering.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003054
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
... resistance, and other properties. This article discusses the fundamentals of sintering and its effects on pore structures and particle density. It addresses some of the more common sintering methods, including solid-state, liquid-phase, and gas pressure sintering, and presents alternative processes...
Abstract
Sintering provides the interparticle bonding that generates the attractive forces needed to hold together the otherwise loose ceramic powder mass. It also improves hardness, strength, transparency, toughness, electrical conductivity, thermal expansion, magnetic saturation, corrosion resistance, and other properties. This article discusses the fundamentals of sintering and its effects on pore structures and particle density. It addresses some of the more common sintering methods, including solid-state, liquid-phase, and gas pressure sintering, and presents alternative processes such as reaction sintering and self-propagating, high-temperature synthesis. It also describes several pressure densification methods, including hot isostatic pressing, gas pressure sintering, molten particle deposition, and sol-gel processing. The article concludes with a section on grain growth that discusses the underlying mechanisms and kinetics and the relationship between grain growth and densification.
Book: Powder Metallurgy
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 7
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 September 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v07.a0006125
EISBN: 978-1-62708-175-7
... powder metallurgy (PM) process of liquid-phase sintering (LPS) in hydrogen, which is capable of yielding complete densification at sintering temperatures far below the melting point of tungsten. In contrast, pure tungsten must be solid-state sintered at temperatures of ∼2200–2800 °C (3990–5070 °F...
Abstract
The residual porosity in sintered refractory metal ingots is usually eliminated by different densification processes, such as thermomechanical processes. This article focuses on thermomechanical processing of tungsten, molybdenum, and tantalum. It provides an overview of liquid-phase sintering of tungsten heavy alloys and describes the infiltration of tungsten and molybdenum for attaining full density. The article concludes by providing information on hot isostatic pressing of refractory metal alloys to full density.
Book: Powder Metallurgy
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 7
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 September 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v07.a0006141
EISBN: 978-1-62708-175-7
...-assisted consolidation reciprocating-screw machines sintering atmosphere solid state sintering tool design tooling THE PROCESS OF POWDER INJECTION MOLDING (PIM), of which metal injection molding (MIM) is the dominant segment, was first practiced in the U.S.A. in the early 1920s in the form...
Abstract
This article describes part selection, feedstock (powders and binders) characteristics and properties, tool design, and material and tooling for fabrication of metal powder injection molding (MIM) machines. It discusses the process parameters, operation sequence, molding machines, debinding techniques, consolidation (sintering) techniques, advantages, and limitations of MIM.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 22B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2010
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v22b.a0005531
EISBN: 978-1-62708-197-9
..., increase the density, and impart strength to the finished part. The process is also used to provide strength to parts produced by PIM and AM. Pressing and sintering is also used to manufacture preforms for PF. Solid-state sintering involves several micromechanisms that bond particles and lead...
Abstract
Power metallurgy (PM) is a process of shaping metal powders into near-net or net shape parts combined with densification or consolidation processes for the development of final material and design properties. This article introduces the general considerations, models, and applications in the modeling of PM processes. It describes the PM process in terms of powder compaction and sintering. The article schematically illustrates powder injection molding for the production of plastic parts and describes PM process models such as discrete-element model (DEM), linear continuum model, and nonlinear continuum model. It concludes with information on the application of press and sinter modeling to practical problems in PM.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 24
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 June 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v24.a0006546
EISBN: 978-1-62708-290-7
... to fall into two categories: Solid-state sintering: Where powder material is subjected to a temperature below its melting point, T m (typically ~ T m /2 on the Kelvin scale), for an extended time to enable formation of bonds across particle boundaries. Pressure can also be applied to increase...
Abstract
This article focuses on four industrial additive manufacturing approaches that are used to create polymer parts. The first section focuses on material extrusion, providing information on lumped-parameter material flow models and higher-fidelity models developed to estimate temperature distribution. The second section covers polymer powder-bed sintering/ fusion, discussing the different levels of scale used to address modeling and the impact of process settings: thermodynamics at the powder-bed surface, consolidation of adjacent particles in the fusion process, and fusion and molecular-level behavior within particles. The third section on vat photopolymerization (VPP) discusses two primary approaches to modeling VPP processes, namely a lumped-parameter approach to estimate cured regions in the vat, known as the Jacobs model, and a high-fidelity, continuum approach that uses finite-element methods. The final section is devoted to material jetting, focusing on simulations used to study droplet generation at the nozzle and droplet impact.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 24
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 June 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v24.a0006569
EISBN: 978-1-62708-290-7
...). Overall, sintering is the focus of much research, as many challenges must be overcome in geometry control, grain growth, and others. Different types of sintering can be used to densify powder parts, including solid-state, liquid-state, and super-solidus liquid-phase sintering ( Ref 32 ). Solid-state...
Abstract
This article focuses on binder-jetting technologies in additive manufacturing (AM) that produce metal artifacts either directly or indirectly. The intent is to focus on the most strategic and widespread uses of the binder jetting technology and review some of the challenges and opportunities for that technology. The discussion includes a historical overview and covers the major steps involved and the advantages of using the binder jetting process. The major steps of the process covered include printing, curing, de-powdering, and sintering.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 23A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 12 September 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v23A.a0006903
EISBN: 978-1-62708-392-8
... mechanical strengths and hardness ( Fig. 1c ) ( Ref 9 , 15 ). The reduction of surface energy is the main driving force for the solid-state sintering process. Conventional and microwave heating are generally used for sintering green parts ( Ref 16 ). The green part is sintered by surface heating...
Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies print three-dimensional (3D) parts through layer-by-layer deposition based on the digital input provided by a computer-aided design file. This article focuses on the binder jet printing process, common biomaterials used in this AM technique, and the clinical applications relevant to these systems. It reviews the challenges and future directions of binder-jetting-based 3D printing.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 24
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 June 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v24.a0006563
EISBN: 978-1-62708-290-7
.... After the two-step process, another powder layer is deposited. The process continues until the desired three-dimensional (3D) part is completed ( Ref 20 ). In general, the binding mechanisms of LPBF processes can be classified into ( Ref 21 ): Solid state sintering Liquid phase sintering...
Abstract
This article focuses on powder bed fusion (PBF) of ceramics, which has the potential to fabricate functional ceramic parts directly without any binders or post-sintering steps. It presents the results of three oxide ceramic materials, namely silica, zirconia, and alumina, processed using PBF techniques. The article discusses the challenges encountered during PBF of ceramics, including nonuniform ceramic powder layer deposition, laser and powder particle interactions, melting and consolidation mechanisms, optimization of process parameters, and presence of residual stresses in ceramics after processing. The applications of PBF ceramics are also discussed.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 24
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 June 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v24.a0006561
EISBN: 978-1-62708-290-7
.... , Andersson B.G. , and Carlström R. , Solid State Sintered 3-D Printing Component by Using Inkjet (Binder) Method , Journal of the Japan Society of Powder and Powder Metallurgy , Vol 63 ( No. 7 ), p 421 , 10.2497/jjspm.63.421 14. Fradette R. , Osterman V. , Jones W...
Abstract
This article focuses on various vacuum heat treating processes for additively manufactured parts, namely annealing and stress relieving, solid-solution annealing, and solution treating and aging. It addresses several practical concerns involved in using vacuum heat treatment, including temperature measurement, unvented cavities, loose powder, and direct contact of metals in the high-temperature vacuum. The article provides a short discussion on sintering and evaporation of metals in vacuum furnaces.
Book: Powder Metallurgy
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 7
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 September 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v07.a0006135
EISBN: 978-1-62708-175-7
... can be divided into two zones: transient liquid phase sintering and final solid state sintering. Transient Liquid Phase Sintering As soon as the part reaches a temperature of 1082 °C (1983 °F), copper begins to melt and starts spreading to the neighboring particle surfaces and penetrating...
Abstract
Sintering atmosphere protects metal parts from the effects of contact with air and provides sufficient conduction and convection for uniform heat transfer to ensure even heating or cooling within various furnace sections, such as preparation, sintering, initial cooling, and final cooling sections. This article provides information on the different zones of these furnace sections. It describes the types of atmospheres used in sintering, namely, endothermic gas, exothermic gas, dissociated ammonia, hydrogen, and vacuum. The article concludes with a discussion on the furnace zoning concept and the problems that arise when these atmospheres are not controlled.
Book: Powder Metallurgy
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 7
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 September 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v07.a0006017
EISBN: 978-1-62708-175-7
... chemical vessels commercially France 1822 Platinum powder formed into solid ingot France 1826 High-temperature sintering of platinum powder compacts on a commercial basis Russia 1829 Wollaston method of producing compact platinum from platinum sponge (basis of modern PM technique) England...
Abstract
Powder metallurgy (PM) has been called a lost art. Long before furnaces were developed that could approach the melting point of metal, PM principles were used. This article provides an overview of the major historical developments of various methods of platinum powder production. The development of production methods took place in various phases starting from prehistoric time, post-war period, to recent and commercial period. The article discusses the powder metallurgy of platinum, as well as the commercial and post-war developments of PM. Literature and trade associations are also discussed.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 24
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 June 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v24.a0006579
EISBN: 978-1-62708-290-7
... in existing powder metallurgy processing. As such, the solid-state sintering kinetics, densification, and sensitivity to contamination from binder residual products are less understood. Notable across all of the AM copper alloys reported in the literature is the deleterious influence of porosity...
Abstract
This article is a detailed account of additive manufacturing (AM) processes for copper and copper alloys such as copper-chromium alloys, GRCop, oxide-dispersion-strengthened copper, copper-nickel alloys, copper-tin alloys, copper-zinc alloys, and copper-base shape memory alloys. The AM processes include binder jetting, ultrasonic additive manufacturing, directed-energy deposition, laser powder-bed fusion, and electron beam powder-bed fusion. The article presents a review of the literature and state of the art for copper alloy AM and features data on AM processes and industrial practices, copper alloys used, selected applications, material properties, and where applicable, compares these data and properties to traditionally processed materials. The data presented and the surrounding discussion focus on bulk metallurgical processing of copper components. The discussion covers the composition and performance criteria for copper alloys that have been reported for AM and discusses key differences in process-structure-property relationships compared to conventionally processed material. The article also provides information on feedstock considerations for copper powder handling.
Book: Powder Metallurgy
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 7
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 September 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v07.a0006108
EISBN: 978-1-62708-175-7
... having a propensity to show less growth during sintering than a press-fit inner ring that has somewhat more growth in comparison to the mating part. The components are fitted together as green briquettes and sintered at conventional time and temperature. The solid-state bond results from mechanical...
Abstract
This article characterizes the physical differences between powder metallurgy (PM) and wrought or cast materials, as they apply to joining. It discusses acceptable joining procedures and techniques, including welding and brazing and solid-state methods. Information on the weldability of various PM materials is presented. The article also describes the effects of porosity on several important properties that affect the welding characteristics.
Book: Powder Metallurgy
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 7
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 September 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v07.a0006053
EISBN: 978-1-62708-175-7
... size and weight control of sintered parts. Part green strength should be sufficient to allow handling the part without damage in the green state, but not so high such that flash created during green shaping cannot be removed easily. Green strength is a function of factors including green density...
Abstract
Consolidation and shaping of grade powders is carried out using several methods, depending on the size, complexity, shape, and quantity of parts required. This article details the powder consolidation methods of carbide powders: uniaxial pressing, cold isostatic pressing, extrusion, green machining, and injection molding.
Book: Powder Metallurgy
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 7
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 September 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v07.a0006042
EISBN: 978-1-62708-175-7
... for a material are often derived by compromise. Higher temperatures are desirable to enhance diffusion and lower flow stress; however, an excessively high process temperature can lead to grain growth and promote undesirable solid-state reactions between the powder and the capsule in which it is contained...
Abstract
This article discusses metal powder processing via hot isostatic pressing (HIP) and HIP cladding when metal powders are being employed in the cladding process. It traces the history of the process and details the equipment, pressing cycle, and densification mechanisms for HIP. The article describes the available process routes for fabricating products using HIP and the steps involved in the production of a part via direct HIP of encapsulated gas-atomized spherical powder. It concludes with information on the microstructures of 316L stainless steel HIP powder metallurgy valve body and a list of the mechanical properties of several powder metallurgy alloys.
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