Due to the recent requirement of higher integration density, solder joints are getting smaller in electronic product assemblies, which makes the joints more vulnerable to failure. Thus, the root-cause failure analysis for the solder joints becomes important to prevent failure at the assembly level. This article covers the properties of solder alloys and the corresponding intermetallic compounds. It includes the dominant failure modes introduced during the solder joint manufacturing process and in field-use applications. The corresponding failure mechanism and root-cause analysis are also presented. The article introduces several frequently used methods for solder joint failure detection, prevention, and isolation (identification for the failed location).

Soldering technology has been used in applications ranging from the packaging of integrated circuit chips to the fabrication of industrial heat exchangers and consequently in structural or electronic applications. This article provides information on various soldering parameters, including types of solder alloy in terms of selection process; selection of substrate base material; flux selection based on adequate wettability by the solder; solder joint assembly; combined substrate, solder, and flux properties; and manufacturing procedures. Each of these parameters is explored using examples of both structural and electronic applications. The article concludes with a discussion on the environmental, safety, and health issues to be considered during soldering.

Tin is produced from both primary and secondary sources. This article discusses the chemical compositions, production, properties, microstructure and applications of tin and tin alloys. The major tin alloys discussed here are tin-antimony-copper alloy (pewter), bearing alloy, solder alloy and other alloys containing traces of tin. Data on tin consumption in the United States is presented graphically.

This article describes dental alloy compositions and its properties. It discusses the safety and efficacy considerations of dental alloy devices. The article defines and compares interstitial fluid and oral fluid environments. Artificial solutions developed for the testing and evaluation of dental materials are summarized. The article examines the effects of restoration contact on electrochemical parameters and reviews the concentration cells developed by dental alloy-environment electrochemical reactions. The composition and characterization of biofilms, corrosion products, and other debris that deposit on dental material surfaces are discussed. The article evaluates the types of alloys available for dental applications, including direct filling alloys, crown and bridge alloys, partial denture alloys, porcelain fused to metal alloys, wrought wire alloys, soldering alloys, and implant alloys. The effects of composition and microstructure on the corrosion of each alloy group are also discussed. The article concludes with information on the tarnishing and corrosion behavior of these alloys.

Soldering involves heating a joint to a suitable temperature and using a filler metal (solder) that melts below 450 deg C (840 deg F). Beginning with an overview of the specification and standards and applications, this article discusses the principal levels and effects of the most common impurity elements in tin-lead solders. It describes the various processes involved in the successful soldering of joints, including shaping the parts to fit closely together; cleaning and preparing the surfaces to be joined; applying a flux; assembling the parts; and applying the heat and solder.

Metals and alloy powders are used in welding, hardfacing, brazing, and soldering applications, which include hardface coatings, the manufacturing of welding stick electrodes and flux-cored wires, and additives in brazing pastes or creams. This article reviews these applications and the specific powder properties and characteristics they require.

Resistance soldering (RS) can be applied to electrically conductive materials that allow the passage of electric current. The process can be used for selective spot soldering of small components, for the soldering of closely placed parts on an assembly, or for heat restriction when necessary. This article explains that the RS process can be used in all soldering operations and with all solderable metals. It provides information on the applications, preassembly practices, the equipment used and the training required for soldering personnel.

This article focuses on the use of indium and bismuth in low-melting-temperature solders and fusible alloys. It describes how the two elements typically occur in nature and how they are recovered and processed for commercial use. It also provides information on designations, classification, composition, properties (including temperatures ranges), and some of the other ways in which indium and bismuth alloys are used.

This article discusses the properties, primary and secondary production, product forms and applications of various grades of lead and lead-base alloys with the aid of several tables and illustrations. It lists the Unified Numbering System (UNS) designations for various pure lead grades and lead-base alloys grouped according to nominal chemical composition. The properties of lead that make it useful in a wide variety of applications are also discussed. The largest use of lead is in lead-acid storage batteries. Other applications include ammunition, cable sheathing, cast products such as type metals, terneplate, foils, and building construction materials. Lead is also used as an alloying element in steel and in copper alloys to improve machinability. The article concludes with information on the principles of lead corrosion, corrosion resistance of lead in water, atmospheres, underground ducts, soil and chemicals.

Solder cracking is one of the dominant failure modes of the electronic assembly system. Experience shows that solder joints can fail due to processing defects during solder joint formation or due to excessive loading in various applications. This article introduces major fractography techniques to demonstrate typical solder joint failure and background failure mechanisms. These techniques may be helpful to readers in recognizing failure modes and in preventing further failures during product development and process implementation.

This article discusses the processing, properties, and applications of various grades of lead and lead-base alloys with the aid of several tables and illustrations. It lists the Unified Numbering System (UNS) designations for various pure lead grades and lead-base alloys grouped according to nominal chemical composition. The properties of lead that make it useful in a wide variety of applications are also discussed. The largest usage of lead is in the lead acid storage batteries (in the grid plates, posts, and connector straps). Other applications include ammunition; cable sheathing; cast products such as type metals, terneplates, and foils; and building construction materials. Lead is also used as an alloying element in steel and in copper alloys to improve machinability and other characteristics. In many applications, lead is combined with stronger materials to make structures that have the best qualities of both materials such as the plumbum series.

Soldering represents the primary method of attaching electronic components, such as resistors, capacitors, or packaged integrated circuits, to either printed wiring board whose defects is minimized by consideration of proper PWB design, device packages, and board assembly. This article discusses the categories that are most important to successful electronic soldering, namely, solders and fluxes selection, nature of base materials and finishes, solder joint design, and solderability testing.

This article focuses on the process design set-up procedure for brazing and soldering. It provides a detailed account of the types of base metals that can be joined by these processes, and reviews the factors to be considered to enhance the joint design. Criteria for selection of the right induction heating equipment to carry out the brazing or soldering operation are also provided. The article describes the types of brazing filler metals and joint designs. It also presents the types of inspection methods, namely, mechanical and visual, used to determine the quality of the brazed joint. Important considerations for the automation of induction-heated brazing applications are also discussed. The article concludes by emphasizing the need for documenting an in-control process which is a vitally important reference for questions or problems arising in the machine settings or part quality.

This article focuses on the various criteria considered in the selection of product forms, joint types, solders, and filler metals for brazing and soldering of base material components.