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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003975
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
..., in which excess material on an internal surface is removed. To ensure accurate cuts, punching and trimming operations are often performed simultaneously. Selection of materials for trimming and punching dies is based on the type of material to be trimmed and whether the part is to be trimmed while...
Abstract
This article addresses dies and die materials used for hot forging in vertical presses, hammers, and horizontal forging machines (upsetters). It reviews the properties of die materials for hot forging, including good hardenability, resistance to wear, plastic deformation, thermal fatigue, and mechanical fatigue. The article describes heat treating practices commonly employed for chromium- and tungsten-base AISI hot-work tool steels. It discusses the fabrication of impression dies, and the advantages and disadvantages of cast dies. The article concludes with a discussion on the factors that affect die life and safety precautions to be considered during die construction.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003183
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... preforming steps. However, this method is not entirely quantitative and requires subjective evaluation based on past experience. The parting line is the line along the forging at which the dies meet. It can be in a single plane, curved, or irregular. The shape and location of the parting line...
Abstract
Forging machines use a wide variety of hammers, presses, and dies to produce products with the desired shape, size, and geometry. This article discusses the major types of hammers (gravity-drop, power-drop, high speed, and open-die forging), and presses (mechanical, hydraulic, screw-type, and multiple-ram). It further discusses the technologies used in the design of dies, terminology, and materials selection for dies for the most common hot-forging processes, particularly those using vertical presses, hammers, and horizontal forging machines. A brief section is included on computer-aided design in the forging industry. Additionally, the article reviews specific characteristics, process limitations, advantages, and disadvantages of the most common forging processes, namely hot upset forging, roll forging, radial forging, rotary forging, isothermal and hot-die forging, precision forging, and cold forging.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004022
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... achieve if it were chosen. For example, let us say that there are two competing organizations with the same optimization goal but whose cost structure is different—material costs are lower for one, while labor costs are lower for another. So if both sought to cut cost by x -percent, each would need to...
Abstract
For forming processes, optimization goals range from tuning the process parameters while keeping geometry unchanged to finding optimal geometry for intermediate dies in a multistage forming operation. This article commences with a description on the three salient steps of optimization procedures: defining the objective function, calculating the objective function, and searching an optimum design. It concludes with an example illustrating the optimization of conical-die extrusion.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2013
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04a.a0005807
EISBN: 978-1-62708-165-8
... treatment; flame cutting Insulating action against heating, with resulting underheated areas and soft spots Localized retardation of quench, causing soft spots Rust, dirt (a) Storage and handling of material or parts Similar to scale condition as noted above left Severe rusting may result in...
Abstract
Flame hardening is a heat treating process in which a thin surface shell of a steel part is heated rapidly to a temperature above the critical temperatures of the steel. The versatility of flame-hardening equipment and the wide range of heating conditions obtainable with gas burners, often permit flame hardening to be done by a variety of methods. These include the spot or stationary method, progressive method, spinning method, and the combination progressive-spinning method. This article provides information on fuel gases used in flame hardening and their selection criteria for specific applications. It also discusses operating procedures and control requirements for flame hardening of steel.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004012
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... affecting die life and explains the effect of thread form on processing. It provides information on various fluids used in thread rolling to cool the dies and the work and to improve the finish on the rolled products. The article provides a comparison between thread rolling and cutting, as well as between...
Abstract
Thread rolling is a cold-forming process for producing threads or other helical or annular forms by rolling the impression of hardened steel dies into the surface of a cylindrical or conical blank. Methods that use cylindrical dies are classified as radial infeed, tangential feed, through feed, planetary, and internal. This article focuses on the capabilities, limitations, and machines used for these methods. It describes the three characteristics, such as rollability, flaking, and seaming, used in evaluating and selecting metals for thread rolling. The article explores the factors affecting die life and explains the effect of thread form on processing. It provides information on various fluids used in thread rolling to cool the dies and the work and to improve the finish on the rolled products. The article provides a comparison between thread rolling and cutting, as well as between thread rolling and grinding.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003983
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... conditions, the tube must have sufficient column strength to permit feeding. Squareness of the cut ends, roundness, and freedom from surface defects also become more critical as the ratio of outside diameter to wall thickness increases. For some applications, it is necessary to reduce...
Abstract
Rotary swaging is an incremental metalworking process for reducing the cross-sectional area or otherwise changing the shape of bars, tubes, or wires by repeated radial blows with two or more dies. This article discusses the applicability of swaging and metal flow during swaging. It describes the types of rotary swaging machines, auxiliary tools, and swaging dies used for rotary swaging and the procedure for determining the side clearance in swaging dies. The article presents an overview of automated swaging machines and tube swaging, with and without a mandrel. It analyzes the effect of reduction, feed rate, die taper angle, surface contaminants, lubrication, and material response on swaging operation. The article discusses the applications for which swaging is the best method for producing a given shape, and compares swaging with alternative processes. It concludes with a discussion on special applications of swagging.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003992
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... the stock is reaching the furnace temperature. Cooling from the forging operations should also be considered in terms of grade and size. Austenitic grades are usually quenched from the forge. This is done to minimize the formation of intergranular chromium carbides and to facilitate cutting and...
Abstract
Stainless steels, based on forging pressure and load requirements, are more difficult to forge because of the greater strength at elevated temperatures and the limitations on the maximum temperatures at which stainless steels can be forged without incurring microstructural damage. This article discusses the forging methods, primary mill practices (primary forging and ingot breakdown), trimming, and cleaning operations of stainless steels. It describes the use of forging equipment, dies, and die material in the forging operation. The article provides an overview of the forgeability of austenitic stainless steels, martensitic stainless steels, precipitation-hardening stainless steels, and ferritic stainless steels. It concludes with a discussion on the heating and lubrication of dies.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003976
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... Abstract This article describes die wear and failure mechanisms, including thermal fatigue, abrasive wear, and plastic deformation. It summarizes the important attributes required for dies and the properties of the various die materials that make them suitable for particular applications...
Abstract
This article describes die wear and failure mechanisms, including thermal fatigue, abrasive wear, and plastic deformation. It summarizes the important attributes required for dies and the properties of the various die materials that make them suitable for particular applications. Recommendations on the selection of the materials for hot forging, hot extrusion, cold heading, and cold extrusion are presented. The article discusses the methods of characterizing abrasive wear and factors affecting abrasive wear. It discusses various die coatings and surface treatments used to extend the lives of dies: alloying surface treatments, micropeening, and electroplating.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004041
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... cutting speeds, and high acceleration and deceleration capabilities. It discusses electrodischarge machining process and electrochemical machining process. The article concludes with information on die-making methods. electrochemical machining electrodischarge machining finishing forging dies...
Abstract
This article reviews the methods of machining and finishing forging dies. It illustrates different stages in die manufacturing. The article provides a brief description on requirements and characteristics of high-speed machining tools, including feed rates, spindle speed, surface cutting speeds, and high acceleration and deceleration capabilities. It discusses electrodischarge machining process and electrochemical machining process. The article concludes with information on die-making methods.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003980
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... preparing blanks for hot upset forging. Sawing, cutting with abrasive wheels, and flame cutting are also used, but less frequently. In high-production upsetting where very large numbers of forging are being produced, even the smallest saving of metal on a single forging can result in substantial...
Abstract
This article discusses the operation of upset forging machines and selection of the machine size. It describes several types of upsetter heading tools and their materials. The article reviews the cold shearing and hot shearing methods for preparing blanks for hot upset forging. It deals with various upsetting processes: offset upsetting, double-end upsetting, upsetting with sliding dies, upsetting pipe and tubing, and electric upsetting. The article also provides information on hot forging and cold forging.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004004
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... size, machining, descaling, cutting to length, and lubricating. It lists the advantages of the cold heading over machining. Materials selection criteria for dies and punches in cold heading are also described. The article provides examples that demonstrate tolerance capabilities and show dimensional...
Abstract
Cold heading is typically a high-speed process where a blank is progressively moved through a multi-station machine. This article discusses various cold heading process parameters, such as upset length ratio, upset diameter ratio, upset strain, and process sequence design. It describes the various components of a cold-heading machine and the tools used in the cold heading process. These include headers, transfer headers, bolt makers, nut formers, and parts formers. The article explains the operations required for preparing stock for cold heading, including heat treating, drawing to size, machining, descaling, cutting to length, and lubricating. It lists the advantages of the cold heading over machining. Materials selection criteria for dies and punches in cold heading are also described. The article provides examples that demonstrate tolerance capabilities and show dimensional variations obtained in production runs of specific cold-headed products. It concludes with a discussion on the applications of warm heading.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004036
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... relation to the forging operation, flash is of major concern to the forging producer. The trimming of flash and exposure of cut grain may also be of concern to the designer, especially if end-use requirements for the forging stipulate optimum resistance to stress corrosion. Although flash is designed in...
Abstract
In terms of the design of a forging, flash is an excess or surplus of metal that is trimmed or otherwise removed after forging operations are completed. This article discusses flash components and the functions of flash. It describes a series of conventional and unconventional flash designs and design adjustments, covering several forging processes and configurations. The article concludes with information on the checklists for the convenience of both designers of forgings and designers of forging dies and contiguous flash.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004008
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
....) and smaller in diameter are cold drawn from coil stock by various methods. With one method, cold-drawn coils produced on the various machines described previously are straightened and cut into bars in a separate operation on machines designed for that purpose. Some in-line methods and equipment begin...
Abstract
The drawing process, one of the oldest metal forming operations, allows excellent surface finishes and closely controlled dimensions to be obtained in long products that have constant cross sections. This article discusses the basic mechanics and preparation steps of drawing. It presents an overview of the processes, equipment, dies and die materials, and lubrication associated with drawing of rod, wire, bar, and tube. The article also provides a discussion on the design considerations and manufacturing of commercial superconducting multifilamentary conductors.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003097
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... cost of dies and cost increases from processing difficulties in forging and trimming. Sharp steps or drops in the parting line should be limited to about 15° from the vertical in small parts and 25° in large forgings, to prevent a tearing instead of a cutting action in trimming off the flash. Locked...
Abstract
Forging is the process of working hot metal between dies, usually under successive blows and sometimes by continuous squeezing. This article describes the material selection criteria, quality assurance tests for forged components, and the dimensional tolerances of closed-die steel forgings. It provides an overview of the mechanical properties of wrought materials. The article also includes information on the fundamentals of hammer and press forgings and the design of hot upset forgings.
Book Chapter
Book: Fractography
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 12
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1987
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v12.a0000613
EISBN: 978-1-62708-181-8
... welding system was used to rebuild the worn cutting tools. Inadequate preheating and postweld heat treating resulted in a crack-prone weld-metal microstructure of brittle, untempered martensite. Fig. 748 : As-received end mills with cracked flutes. 0.38×. Fig. 749 : Fracture surface. G is the ground...
Abstract
This article is an atlas of fractographs that helps in understanding the causes and mechanisms of fracture of tool steels and in identifying and interpreting the morphology of fracture surfaces. The fractographs illustrate the low-cycle and high-cycle fatigue fractures, tension-overload fractures, impact fractures, microstructure, quench cracking, brittle-in-service failure, hydrogen embrittlement, stress-corrosion cracking, and grain-boundary cracking of tool steel components. These components include diesel engine injector plungers, rivet-heading tools, circular saw blades, and open-header dies.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004006
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... save time and energy costs. A puller system and runout table, which may be 30 to 40 m (100 to 130 ft) long, is used to support and guide the product during extrusion. A stretcher is used to straighten the extruded product, and a cutoff saw is used to cut parts to the required length. A handling or...
Abstract
Hot extrusion is a process in which wrought parts are formed by forcing a heated billet through a shaped die opening. This article discusses nonlubricated and lubricated hot extrusion. The two nonlubricated hot extrusion methods are forward or direct extrusion and backward or indirect extrusion. The article illustrates the significance of extrusion speeds and temperatures in hot extrusion. It describes the basic types of presses used in the hot extrusion of metals. The article provides information on the characterization of extruded shapes and explains the operating parameters, including extrusion velocity, amount of pressure required, and type of lubricant, for successful and efficient hot extrusion. The article concludes with a discussion on applications and design methodology that provides insight into CAD/CAM of extrusion dies.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003178
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... FORMS are used to give a high strength-to-weight ratio, an open construction (as in fan guards or baskets), shock absorption, and economy of automatic production of formed parts. For small production quantities or large parts, wire is straightened and cut to length as a preliminary operation before the...
Abstract
This article discusses the mechanics, surface preparation and principles of metal forming operations such as drawing, bending (draw bending, compression bending, roll bending, and stretch bending), spinning, and straightening of bars, tubes, wires, rods and structural shapes. The article also discusses the machines and tools, including dies and mandrels, and lubricants used for these metal forming operations.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004021
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... temperature quickly, and material is likely to behave differently at elevated temperatures. It plays an important role in metalworking, inertial welding, translational friction welding, and the cutting process. The latent heat comes from the phase transformation or phase change, and eddy-current heat is...
Abstract
This article provides a summary of the overall development of the finite element method (FEM) and its contribution to the materials forming industry. It presents an overview of FEM methodologies and applications in the order of their usage in typical manufacturing (bulk forming process) process sequence: primary materials processing, hot forging and cold forming, and product assembly. The article discusses the material fracture and dies stress analysis and presents the optimization techniques used in 2-D and 3-D preform die design.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003979
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... workpiece on all sides. The impression for the forging can be entirely in either die or can be divided between the top and bottom dies. The forging stock, generally round or square bar, is cut to length to provide the volume of metal needed to fill the die cavities, in addition to an allowance for flash...
Abstract
This article provides an overview of the capabilities of closed-die forging. One of the most important aspects of closed-die forging is proper design of preforming operations and of blocker dies to achieve adequate metal distribution. The article describes the effects of friction and lubrication in forging. It discusses the types of closed-die forgings, namely, blocker-type, conventional, and close-tolerance. The article illustrates the classification of forging shapes and explains how to predict the forging pressure and the control of die temperature during closed-die forging. It explains the use of heating equipment for closed-die forging and tabulates the maximum safe forging temperatures for carbon and alloy steels. The article concludes with a discussion on a trimming method used for closed-die forgings.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003987
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... hubbing. Hubbing is done by cutting the pattern into a male master plug (hub), hardening this hub, and pressing the hardened hub into a die block to make the coining impression. Highly alloyed tool steels are relatively difficult to hub. When coining dies are made from these steels, it may be necessary to...
Abstract
Coining is a closed-die forging operation in which all surfaces of the workpiece are confined or restrained, resulting in a well-defined imprint of the die on the workpiece. This article focuses on the coining equipment (hammers and presses), lubricants, and general and special die materials used in the coining process. It discusses the coinability of metals such as steels, copper, and composite metals. The article describes the control of dimensions, surface finishes, and weight of coined items. It concludes with a discussion on processing problems and solutions.