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Technical Publications Committee of the Porcelain Enamel Institute, Inc. , John C. Oliver, Douglas D. Giese, Jeffrey F. Wright, Ronald L. Allen ...
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sheet-metal forming
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Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003177
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... information on the various drive systems and the auxiliary equipment. It describes the selection of die materials and lubricants for sheet metal forming and provides information on the lubrication mechanisms and selection with a list of lubricant types for forming of specific sheet materials of ferrous or...
Abstract
This article describes the presses that are mechanically or hydraulically powered and used for producing sheet, strip, and plate from sheet metal. It also presents the JIC standards for presses, compares the presses based on power source, details the selection criteria and provides information on the various drive systems and the auxiliary equipment. It describes the selection of die materials and lubricants for sheet metal forming and provides information on the lubrication mechanisms and selection with a list of lubricant types for forming of specific sheet materials of ferrous or nonferrous metals. The article reviews the various types of forming processes such as blanking, piercing, fine-edge blanking, press bending, press forming, forming by multiple-slide machines, deep drawing, stretch forming, spinning, rubber-pad forming, three-roll forming, contour roll forming, drop hammer forming, explosive forming, electromagnetic forming, and superplastic forming.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004028
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... complex forming operations, through the use of the finite element method, are also presented. axial deformation body centered-cubic sheets deformation texture finite element method forming plastic deformation rolled face-centered-cubic zirconium METALS are polycrystalline aggregates, that...
Abstract
This article outlines several polycrystal formulations commonly applied for the simulation of plastic deformation and the prediction of deformation texture. It discusses the crystals of cubic and hexagonal symmetry that constitute the majority of the metallic aggregates used in technological applications. The article defines the basic kinematic tensors, reports their relations, and presents expressions for calculating the change in crystallographic orientation associated with plastic deformation. It surveys some of the polycrystal models in terms of the relative strength of the homogeneous effective medium (HEM). The article analyzes the anisotropy predictions of rolled face-centered-cubic and body centered-cubic sheets and presents simulations of the axial deformation of hexagonal-close-packed zirconium. The applications of polycrystal constitutive models to the simulation of complex forming operations, through the use of the finite element method, are also presented.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14b.9781627081863
EISBN: 978-1-62708-186-3
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003180
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... for the press-brake forming of refractory metal sheet 0.5 to 1.3 mm (0.020 to 0.050 in.) thick Metal or alloy Forming temperature, °C (°F) Minimum bend radius (a) Springback, degrees Test data Preferred Niobium alloys (annealed) C-103 (Nb-10Hf-1Ti), C-129Y (Nb-10Hf-10W) Room...
Abstract
Characteristics of stainless steel that affect its formability include yield strength, tensile strength, and ductility, in addition to the effect of work hardening on these properties. This article discusses the forming process of stainless steel, heat-resistant alloys and refractory metals, detailing the major aspects of forming, including formability, lubrication, and forming methods and tools. The effect of factors such as alloy condition, cold reduction, forming direction (in the case of heat-resistant alloys) and temperature (in the case of refractory metals) on formability is also discussed.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003971
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... increased efficiency in the metalworking industry. In metalworking, an initially simple workpiece—a billet or a blanked sheet, for example—is plastically deformed between tools (or dies) to obtain the desired final configuration. Metal-forming processes are usually classified according to two broad...
Abstract
Metalworking is one of the three major technologies used to fabricate metal products. This article tabulates the classification of metal forming processes. It discusses different types of metalworking equipment, including rolling mills, ring-rolling machines, and thread-rolling and surface-rolling machines. The article outlines the significant characteristics of pressing-type machines: load and energy characteristics, time-related characteristics, and accuracy characteristics. It summarizes different specialized processes such as advanced roll-forming methods, equal-channel angular extrusion, incremental forging, and microforming. The article describes the thermomechanical processing of nickel- and titanium-base alloys and concludes with information on the advancements in process simulation.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003181
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... the lower tensile and yield strengths of aluminum alloys, and from their comparatively slow rate of work hardening. The compositions and tempers of aluminum alloys also affect their formability. BERYLLIUM has been successfully formed by most common sheet metal forming...
Abstract
This article provides a detailed account on forming operations (blanking, piercing, press-brake forming, contour rolling, deep drawing, cold forming, and hot forming) of various nonferrous metals, including aluminum alloys, beryllium, copper and its alloys, magnesium alloys, nickel alloys, titanium alloys, and platinum metals. It discusses the formability, equipment and tooling, and lubricants used in the forming operations of these nonferrous metals.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004001
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... materials. Powder consolidation has been performed primarily by HIP (in metal or ceramic cans) or canned hot extrusion. Hot isostatic pressing has been used to make finished parts as well as preforms for subsequent sheet rolling, forging, and so forth ( Ref 89 , Ref 90 , Ref 91 , Ref 92 ). Hot...
Abstract
This article reviews the bulk deformation processes for various aluminide and silicide intermetallic alloys with emphasis on the gamma titanium aluminide alloys. It summarizes the understanding of microstructure evolution and fracture behavior during thermomechanical processing of the gamma aluminides with particular reference to production scaleable techniques, including vacuum arc and cold-hearth melting, isothermal forging, conventional hot forging, and extrusion. The selection and design of manufacturing methods, in the context of processing-cost trade-offs for gamma titanium aluminide alloys, are also discussed.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004017
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... solid). For most metals n has values between 0.10 and 0.50. Fig. 6 Log-log plot of true stress-true strain curve. n is the strain-hardening exponent; K is the strength coefficient Fig. 7 Different forms of the power curve σ= K ε n for different values of n Note that the...
Abstract
This article focuses on the factors that determine the extent of deformation a metal can withstand before cracking or fracture occurs. It informs that workability depends on the local conditions of stress, strain, strain rate, and temperature in combination with material factors. The article discusses the common testing techniques and process variables for workability prediction. It illustrates the simple and most widely used fracture criterion proposed by Cockcroft and Latham and provides a workability analysis using the fracture limit line. The article describes various workability tests, such as the tension test, ring compression test, plane-strain compression test, bend test, indentation test, and forgeability test. It concludes with information on the role of the finite-element modeling software used in workability analysis.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0009004
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... obvious approach involves modeling of the void coalescence phenomenon normally associated with ductile fracture. Another approach involves a model of localized thinning of sheet metal that has been adapted to lk forming processes. In addition to models of fracture, criteria have been developed from...
Abstract
This article focuses on the effects of mechanical plasticity on workability; that is, process control of localized stress and strain conditions to enhance workability. It describes the nature of local stress and strain states in bulk forming processes, leading to a classification scheme, including testing procedures and specific process measurements, that facilitate the application of workability concepts. Using examples, the article applies these concepts to forging, rolling, and extrusion processes. The stress and strain environments described in the article suggest that a workability test should be capable of subjecting the material to a variety of surface strain combinations. By providing insights on fracture criteria, these tests can be used as tools for troubleshooting fracture problems in existing processes, as well as in the process development for new product designs.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003053
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
... process used to form ceramic components from a dry powder by uniform pressing from all directions. It is also used with many other materials, such as metals, plastics, graphite, and carbon. The process is accomplished by enclosing the powder in a deformable mold and then collapsing that mold using a fluid...
Abstract
Ceramic-forming processes usually start with a powder which is then compacted into a porous shape, achieving maximum particle packing density with a high degree of uniformity. This article compares and contrasts several forming processes, including mechanical consolidation, dry pressing, cold isostatic pressing, slip casting, tape casting, roll compaction, extrusion, and injection molding. It describes the advantages, equipment and tooling, and material requirements of green machining, the machining of ceramics in an unfired state with the intent of producing parts as close to as possible to their final shape. The article also provides useful information on drying methods, shrinkage, and defects as well as the removal of organic processing aids such as dispersants, binders, plasticizers, and lubricants.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004010
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... generally denotes cold forming of plate, sheet, bars, beams, pipe, or angular cross section lengths into selected shapes by passing the metal workpiece between three correctly spaced rolls ( Ref 1 , 5 ). The roll forming process employs pairs of small opposed rollers to shape a cylindrical workpiece into a...
Abstract
This article describes the roll forming of components of nickel, titanium, and aluminum alloys. The metallurgical characteristics of the roll formed components, such as macrostructures, microstructures, tensile strength, and stress rupture performance, are discussed. The article compares the resulting properties of roll formed and conventionally forged components.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004021
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... shop trial. When unexpected metal flow occurs, a part with underfill, excessive loads, die breakage, laps, or other production problems can result. In one case ( Ref 21 ), a fastener manufacturer noted a small defect during the shop trial of an automotive part ( Fig. 40 ). The forming process was...
Abstract
This article provides a summary of the overall development of the finite element method (FEM) and its contribution to the materials forming industry. It presents an overview of FEM methodologies and applications in the order of their usage in typical manufacturing (bulk forming process) process sequence: primary materials processing, hot forging and cold forming, and product assembly. The article discusses the material fracture and dies stress analysis and presents the optimization techniques used in 2-D and 3-D preform die design.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 September 2014
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04b.a0005950
EISBN: 978-1-62708-166-5
... manufacturing to improve workability, machinability, and other factors affecting manufacturing performance. Although the heat treatment processes are vital steps in the process chain of many components based on metals and alloys, they are also one of the major causes of rejected components, production losses...
Abstract
This article describes the fundamental concepts of heat treatment simulation, including the physical events and their interactions, the heat treatment simulation software, and the commonly used simulation strategies. It summarizes material data needed for heat treatment simulations and discusses reliable data sources as well as experimental and computational methods for material data acquisition. The article provides information on the process data needed for accurate heat treatment simulation and the methods for their determination. Methods for validating heat treatment simulations are also discussed with an emphasis on the underlying philosophy for the selection and design of validation tests. The article also discusses the applications, capabilities, and limitations of heat treatment simulations via selected industrial case studies for a better understanding of the effect of microstructure, distortion, residual stress, and cracking in gears, shafts, and bearing rings.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003094
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... electronic equipment, food-handling and processing equipment, and laboratory clamps. It is generally produced with a matte finish formed by applying the coating to basis metal sheet called “black plate,” which has a dull surface texture, and leaving the coating unmelted. It can also be produced with a bright...
Abstract
Low-carbon steel sheet and strip are used primarily in consumer goods. This article discusses quality descriptors and mechanical properties of low-carbon steel sheet and strip and carbon and low-alloy steel plate. Alloy steel sheet and strip are used primarily for those special applications that require the mechanical properties normally obtained by heat treatment. Steel sheet is coated in coil form before fabrication either by the steel mills or by specialists called coil coaters. Porcelain enamels are glass coatings applied primarily to products or parts made of sheet steel, cast iron, or aluminum to improve appearance and to protect the metal surface.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004030
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... article also provides formulas for flat rolling, conical-die extrusion, wire drawing, deep drawing of cups from sheet metal, and bending, and formulas for anisotropic sheet materials. bending conical-die extrusion deep drawing flat rolling sheet metal forming strain strain rate stress...
Abstract
This article contains nine tables that present useful formulas for deformation analysis and workability testing. The tables present formulas for effective stress, strain, and strain rate in arbitrary coordinates, principal, compression and tension testing of isotropic material. The article also provides formulas for flat rolling, conical-die extrusion, wire drawing, deep drawing of cups from sheet metal, and bending, and formulas for anisotropic sheet materials.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003141
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... Abstract Titanium metal passes through three major steps during processing from ore to finished product: reduction of titanium ore to sponge (porous form), melting of sponge and scrap to form ingot, and remelting and casting into finished shape. This article describes primary fabrication...
Abstract
Titanium metal passes through three major steps during processing from ore to finished product: reduction of titanium ore to sponge (porous form), melting of sponge and scrap to form ingot, and remelting and casting into finished shape. This article describes primary fabrication, including all operations that convert ingot into general mill products, such as billet, bar, plate, sheet, strip, tube, and wire. The section on secondary fabrication describes processes such as die forging, extrusion, hot and cold forming, machining, chemical milling, and joining. The article presents a short note on powder metallurgy products of titanium. Casting processes and properties are covered in the final section.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001270
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... forming of the coated sheet. For painted end uses, such as automobiles and metal buildings, a smoother, nonspangled surface is desirable for appearance purposes. When this is the case, lead or the other spangle-promoting elements can be omitted from the bath. When it is desirable to produce both spangled...
Abstract
This article discusses the processes involved in continuous hotdip coating of steel sheets, namely, hot and cold line processing, surface preparation, and post treatment. It outlines the properties and microstructures of metals and their alloys used in this process. The coatings considered in this article include metal coatings, such as zinc coatings, and alloy coatings, such as zinc-iron, types 1 and 2 aluminum, Zn-5AI, Zn-55AI, and lead-tin coatings.
Book: Corrosion: Materials
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13b.a0003804
EISBN: 978-1-62708-183-2
... finished ton to an average of 3 man-hours per finished ton in 2004. Many North American plants are producing a ton of finished steel in less than 1 man-hour ( Ref 2 ). Steel products include hot rolled shapes, bars, rods, wire, hot and cold rolled sheet and strip, plates, tin mill products, metallic...
Abstract
Ferrous metals are metals that contain primarily iron and may have small amounts of other elements added to give the desired properties. This article discuses the characteristics of steel products used in most industries, including construction, automotive, energy, shipping, and agriculture. These products include bars, rods, wires, hot and cold rolled sheets, strip plates, tin mill products, steel tubes, castings, and forgings. The article also provides information on the methods used to prevent or control the rusting of ferrous materials, namely, alloying, coating, and covering.
Book Chapter
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001279
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... Abstract Porcelain enamels are glass coatings applied primarily to products or parts made of sheet steel, cast iron, and aluminum to improve appearance and to protect the metal surface. This article describes the types of porcelain enamels, and details enamel frits for these materials. It...
Abstract
Porcelain enamels are glass coatings applied primarily to products or parts made of sheet steel, cast iron, and aluminum to improve appearance and to protect the metal surface. This article describes the types of porcelain enamels, and details enamel frits for these materials. It provides a list of steels suitable for porcelain enameling and discusses the most important factors considered in the selection of steel for porcelain enameling. The article briefly presents the preparation methods of these materials for porcelain enameling and covers the methods, and furnaces of porcelain enameling. It examines the role of coating thickness, firing time and temperature, metal substrate, and color on the performance of enameled surfaces. The article concludes with a discussion on the properties of enameled surfaces, factors considered in process control, and test procedures for evaluating the quality of enameled surfaces.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003017
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
... function and property requirements for resins and additives; size, shape, design, and cost of molded parts; equipment type and size; and the type of mold to be used. Commonly used molds include cast aluminum, fabricated sheet metal, nickel deposit, machined aluminum, silicone, fiberglass, and prototype...
Abstract
Rotational molding is a simple but unique process that has the capability of producing small to large hollow items with very uniform wall thicknesses. Providing an overview of the operating principles of rotational molding, this article discusses the key selection factors, including function and property requirements for resins and additives; size, shape, design, and cost of molded parts; equipment type and size; and the type of mold to be used. Commonly used molds include cast aluminum, fabricated sheet metal, nickel deposit, machined aluminum, silicone, fiberglass, and prototype molds.