Radiography is a nondestructive-inspection method that is based on the differential absorption of penetrating radiation by the part or test piece (object) being inspected. This article discusses the fundamentals and general applications of radiography, and describes the sources of radiation in radiographic inspection, including X-rays and gamma rays. It deals with the characteristics that differentiate neutron radiography from X-ray or gamma-ray radiography. The geometric principles of shadow formation, image conversion, variation of attenuation with test-piece thickness, and many other factors that govern the exposure and processing of a neutron radiograph are similar to those for radiography using X-rays or gamma rays.

The application of transmission electron microscope to the study of fracture surfaces and related phenomena has made it possible to obtain magnifications and depths of field much greater than those possible with light (optical) microscopes. This article reviews the methods for preparing single-stage, double-stage, and extraction replicas of fracture surfaces. It discusses the types of artifacts and their effects on these replicas, and provides information on shadowing of replicas. The article concludes with a comparison of the transmission electron and scanning electron fractographs with illustrations.

The introduction of focused ion beam (FIB) microscopy in the 1990s added the capability of studying fracture surfaces in the third dimension and making site-specific and stress-free transmission electron microscope (TEM) specimens in situ. This article reviews the methods for preparing replicas and the site-specific FIB thin-foil preparation technique. It provides an overview of FIB-TEM specimen preparation.

This article reviews photographic principles, namely, visual examination, field photographic documentation, and laboratory photographic documentation, as applied to failure analysis and the specific techniques employed in both the field and laboratory. It provides information on the photographic equipment used in failure analysis and on film and digital photography. The article describes the basics of photography and the uses of different types of lighting in photography of a fractured surface. The article also addresses the techniques involved in macrophotography and microscopic photography as well as other special techniques.

This article provides information on thermal spray coating features, which combine to determine the properties of a coating. These include the lamellar or layered splat structure, entrapped unmelted or resolidified particles, pores, oxide inclusions, grains, phases, cracks, and bond interfaces. The article describes the sources of porosity and the factors that control the final coating porosity levels. The article also lists the materials most suitable for thermal spraying processes.

Failure analysis is an investigative process that uses visual observations of features present on a failed component fracture surface combined with component and environmental conditions to determine the root cause of a failure. The primary means of recording the conditions and features observed during a failure analysis investigation is photography. Failure analysis photographic imaging is a combination of both science and art; experience and proper imaging techniques are required to produce an accurate and meaningful fracture surface photograph. This article reviews photographic principles and techniques as applied to failure analysis, both in the field and in the laboratory. The discussion covers the processes involved in field and laboratory photographic documentations, provides a description of professional digital cameras, and gives information on photographic lighting and microscopic photography. Special techniques can be employed to deal with highly reflective conditions and are also described in this article.

Radiography is the process or technique of producing images of a solid material on a paper/photographic film or on a fluorescent screen by means of radiation particles or electromagnetic waves of short wavelength. This article reviews the general characteristics and safety principles associated with radiography. There are two main aspects of safety: monitoring radiation dosage and protecting personnel. The article summarizes the major factors involved in both and discusses the operating characteristics of X-ray tubes. It describes the various methods of controlling scattered radiation: use of lead screens; protection against backscatter and scatter from external objects; and use of masks, diaphragms, collimators, and filtration. The article concludes with a discussion on image conversion media, including recording media, lead screens, lead oxide screens, and fluorescent intensifying screens.

This article is a compilation of definitions of terms related to metallography and microstructures.

This article focuses on the design considerations and process parameters critical to the successful implantation of wave soldering on printed circuit boards. The design considerations include the through-hole technology and the surface-mount technology. The article presents information on process parameters, which can be divided into three groups: the fluxing operation, solder wave properties, and process schedule. It provides information on various solder defects.

The purpose of fractography is to analyze fracture features and attempt to relate the topography of the fracture surface to the causes and/or basic mechanisms of fracture. This article reviews the historical development of fractography, from the early studies of fracture appearance dating back to the sixteenth century to the state-of-the-art work in electron fractography and quantitative fractography. It also describes the applications and limitations of scanning electron microscope and transmission electron microscope.

This article reviews the historical development of fractography, from the early studies of fracture appearance dating back to the sixteenth century, and including the development of microfractography in the middle of the 20th century, to the current state-of-the-art work in electron fractography and quantitative fractography.

This article discusses the preparation of photomacrographs of fracture surfaces. It provides useful information on the equipment used, such as view cameras, 35-mm single-lens-reflex cameras, and stereomicroscopes. The article describes the role of lenses, focusing, camera magnification, and selection of lens aperture in a microscopic system. It illustrates the lighting techniques employed in photography and highlights the use of different films. The article concludes with a list of auxiliary equipment used in fracture surface photography.

This article describes eight stages of the atomistic film growth: vaporization of the material, transport of the material to the substrate, condensation and nucleation of the atoms, nuclei growth, interface formation, film growth, changes in structure during the deposition, and postdeposition changes. It also discusses the effects and causes of growth-related properties of films deposited by physical vapor deposition processes, including residual film stress, density, and adhesion.

Detailed analyses and test correlations are typically required to support design development, structural sizing, and certification. This article addresses issues concerning building block levels ranging from design-allowables coupons up through subcomponents, as these levels exhibit a wide variety of test-analysis correlation objectives. At these levels, enhanced analysis capability can be used most effectively in minimizing test complexity and cost while also reducing design weight and risk. The article discusses the examples of tests for which good correlative capability has shown significant benefit. These include notched (open and/or filled hole) tension and compression, inter/intralaminar shear and tension, and pin bearing.

Failure analysis is an investigative process in which the visual observations of features present on a failed component and the surrounding environment are essential in determining the root cause of a failure. This article reviews the basic photographic principles and techniques that are applied to failure analysis, both in the field and in the laboratory. It discusses the processes involved in visual examination, field photographic documentation, and laboratory photographic documentation of failed components. The article describes the operating principles of each part of a professional digital camera. It covers basic photographic principles and manipulation of settings that assist in producing high-quality images. The need for accurate photographic documentation in failure analysis is also presented.