This article provides an overview of scanning probe microscopes (scanning tunneling microscope and atomic force microscope (AFM)), covering the various operating modes and probes used in these instruments and providing information on AFM instrumentation, applications, and analyses.

This article describes the types, mechanism, and typical test methods along with their configurations for the evaluation of hydrogen embrittlement, stress-corrosion cracking, and corrosion fatigue with an emphasis on fracture mechanics methodologies for metals. An overview on the environmentally assisted crack growth of polymers is also included. The article details the evaluation of nanoscale environmental effects and indentation-induced cohesive cracking. It also provides information on scanning probe microscopy.

This article is an overview of the division Surface Analysis of this volume. The division covers various developed surface-analysis techniques, such as scanning probe and atomic force microscopy. The division focuses on the analysis of surface layers that are less than 100 nm. A quick reference summary of surface-analysis methods is presented in this article.

This article briefly discusses popular techniques for metals characterization. It begins with a description of the most common techniques for determining chemical composition of metals, namely X-ray fluorescence, optical emission spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, high-temperature combustion, and inert gas fusion. This is followed by a section on techniques for determining the atomic structure of crystals, namely X-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction, and electron diffraction. Types of electron microscopies most commonly used for microstructural analysis of metals, such as scanning electron microscopy, electron probe microanalysis, and transmission electron microscopy, are then reviewed. The article contains tables listing analytical methods used for characterization of metals and alloys and surface analysis techniques. It ends by discussing the objective of metallography.

This article focuses on laboratory atomic force microscopes (AFMs) used in ambient air and liquid environments. It begins with a discussion on the origin of AFM and development trends occurring in AFM. This is followed by a section on the general principles of AFM and a comprehensive list of AFM scanning modes. There is a brief description of how each mode works and what types of applications can be made with each mode. Some of the processes involved in preparation of samples (bulk materials and those placed on a substrate) scanned in an AFM are then presented. The article provides information on the factors applicable to the accuracy and precision of AFM measurements. It ends by discussing the applications for AFMs in the fields of science, technology, and engineering.

This article focuses on the modes of operation, physical basis, sample requirements, properties characterized, advantages, and limitations of the characterization methods used to evaluate the physical morphology and chemical properties of component surfaces for medical devices. These methods include light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, Auger electron spectroscopy, secondary ion mass spectrometry, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and Raman spectroscopy.

Microstructural analysis of specialized types of magnetic materials is centered on the examination of optical, electron, and scanning probe metallographic techniques unique to magnetic materials. This article provides a comprehensive overview of magnetic materials, their characteristics and sample preparation procedures. It reviews the methods pertaining to the microstructural examination of bulk magnetic materials, including microscopy techniques specified to magnetic materials characterization, with specific examples. The techniques used in the study of magnetic domain structures (microstructure) include the magneto-optical Kerr method, the Faraday method, the Bitter technique, scanning electron microscopy (magnetic contrast Types I and II), scanning electron microscopy with polarization analysis, Lorentz transmission electron microscopy, and magnetic force microscopy. The article also illustrates the microstructure of different types of soft magnetic material and permanent magnets.

Microstructural analysis is the combined characterization of the morphology, elemental composition, and crystallography of microstructural features through the use of a microscope. This article reviews three types of the most commonly used electron microscopies in metallurgical studies, namely scanning electron microscopy, electron probe microanalysis, and transmission electron microscopy. It briefly describes the operating principles, instrumentation which includes energy dispersive X-ray detectors, spatial resolution, typical use of the techniques, elemental analysis detection threshold and precision, limitations, sample requirements, and the capabilities of related techniques.

This article describes the operation and capabilities of surface analysis methods of metals, including scanning electron microscopy, electron probe microanalysis, transmission electron microscopy, secondary ion mass spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. It provides information on the capabilities, typical uses, spatial resolution, elemental analysis detection threshold and precision, limitations, sample requirements, and operating principles of the scanning auger microprobe.

This article discusses the capabilities and limitations of various material characterization methods that assist in the selection of a proper analytical tool for analyzing particulate materials. Commonly used methods are microanalysis, surface analysis, and bulk analysis. The techniques used for performing microanalysis include scanning electron microscopy and electron probe X-ray microanalysis. The article describes surface analysis techniques, including Auger electron spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and ion-scattering spectroscopy. Bulk analysis techniques, such as X-ray powder diffraction, inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy, atomic absorption spectroscopy, and atomic fluorescence spectrometry, are also discussed.

This article describes the analytical methods for analyzing surfaces for corrosion and corrosion inhibition processes as well as failure analysis based on surface structure and chemical identity and composition. The principles and applications of the surface-structure analysis techniques, namely, optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, scanning tunneling microscopy, and atomic force microscopy, are reviewed. The article discusses the principles and applications of chemical identity and composition analysis techniques. These techniques include the energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, Auger electron spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, ion scattering spectroscopy, reflectance Fourier transform infrared absorption spectroscopy, Raman and surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy, and extended X-ray absorption fine structure analysis.

This article provides a general introduction of materials characterization and describes the principles and applications of a limited number of techniques that are most commonly used to characterize the composition and structure of metals used in engineering systems. It briefly describes the classification of materials characterization methods including, bulk elemental characterization, bulk structural characterization, microstructural characterization, and surface characterization. Further, the article reviews the selection of materials characterization methods most commonly used with metals.

Fatigue damage in metals is caused by the simultaneous action of cyclic stress, tensile stress, and plastic strain. This article details the fundamental aspects of the stages of the fatigue failure process. These include cyclic plastic deformation prior to fatigue crack initiation, initiation of one or more microcracks, propagation or coalescence of microcracks to form one or more microcracks, and propagation of one or more macrocracks.