Although stainless steel is naturally passivated by exposure to air and other oxidizers, additional surface treatments are needed to prevent corrosion. Passivation, pickling, electropolishing, and mechanical cleaning are important surface treatments for the successful performance of stainless steel. This article describes the surface treatment of stainless steels including abrasive blast cleaning, acid pickling, salt bath descaling, passivation treatments, electropolishing, and the necessary coating processes involved. It also describes the surface treatment of heat-resistant alloys including metallic contaminant removal, tarnish removal, oxide and scale removal, finishing, and coating processes.

This article describes the methods for removing metallic contaminants, tarnish, and scale resulting from hot-working or heat-treating operations on nickel-, cobalt-, and iron-base heat-resistant alloys. It provides a brief description of applicable finishing and coating processes, including polishing, electroplating, ceramic coatings, diffusion coatings, and shot-peening. The article presents numerous examples that identify cleaning and finishing problems and the procedures used to solve them.

This article provides an overview of surface contaminants that may affect the heat treatment processes and end-product quality. It presents information on the chemicals used to clean different surface contaminants of steels. The article discusses three types of cleaning methods, namely, mechanical, chemical, and electrochemical and their effectiveness and applicability. The mechanical cleaning methods include grinding, brushing, steam or flame jet cleaning, abrasive blasting, and tumbling. Solvent cleaning, emulsion cleaning, alkaline cleaning, acid cleaning, pickling, and descaling are chemical cleaning methods. The electrochemical cleaning methods include electropolishing, electrolytic alkaline cleaning, and electrolytic pickling. The article provides information on cleanliness measurement methods such as qualitative tests and quantitative tests to ensure product quality. Health hazards that may be associated with each cleaning method and the general control measures to be used for each hazard are tabulated.

This article describes the basic attributes of the most widely used metal surface cleaning processes to remove pigmented drawing compounds, unpigmented oil and grease, chips, cutting fluids, polishing and buffing compounds, rust and scale from steel parts, and residues and lapping compounds from magnetic particle and fluorescent penetrant inspection. The cleaning processes include emulsion cleaning, electrolytic alkaline cleaning, acid cleaning, solvent cleaning, vapor degreasing, alkaline cleaning, ultrasonic cleaning, and glass bead cleaning. The article provides guidelines for choosing an appropriate process for particular applications and discusses eight well-known methods for determining the degree of cleanliness of the work surface.

Commercially pure titanium and most titanium alloys can be welded by procedures and equipment used in welding austenitic stainless steel and aluminum. This article describes weldability of unalloyed titanium and all alpha titanium alloys. It reviews the selection of fusion-welding processes that are used for joining titanium and titanium alloys. The processes include gas-tungsten arc welding (GTAW), gas-metal arc welding (GMAW), plasma arc welding (PAW), electron-beam welding (EBW), laser-beam welding (LBW), friction welding (FRW), and resistance welding (RW). The article discusses the role of filler metals and shielding gases in welding titanium and titanium alloys. It describes the equipment used for gas-tungsten arc welding and concludes with information on repair welds.

Zirconium and hafnium surfaces require cleaning and finishing for reasons such as preparation for joining, heat treatment, plating, forming, and producing final surface finishes. This article provides information on various surface treatment processes, surface soil removal, blast cleaning, chemical descaling, pickling or etching, anodizing, autoclaving, polishing, buffing, vapor phase nitriding, and electroplating. Applications of these surface treatment processes are also reviewed.

This article reviews cleaning and finishing operations that have proven to be effective on titanium, its alloys, and semi-fabricated titanium products. It explains how to remove scale, tarnish films, grease, and other soils and how to achieve required finishes and/or improve wear and oxidation resistance through the use of polishing, buffing, and wire brushing operations. The article also covers a wide range of surface modification and coating processes, including ion implantation, diffusion, chemical and physical vapor deposition, plating, anodizing, and chemical conversion coatings as well as sprayed and sol-gel coatings and laser and electron-beam treatments.

Passivation; pickling, that is, acid descaling; electropolishing; and mechanical cleaning are important surface treatments for the successful performance of stainless steel used for piping, pressure vessels, tanks, and machined parts in a wide variety of applications. This article provides an overview of the various types of stainless steels and describes the commonly used cleaning methods, namely, alkaline cleaning, emulsion cleaning, solvent cleaning, vapor degreasing, ultrasonic cleaning, and acid cleaning. Finishing operations of stainless steels, such as grinding, polishing, and buffing, are reviewed. The article also explains the procedures of electrocleaning, electropolishing, electroplating, painting, surface blackening, coloring, terne coatings, and thermal spraying. It includes useful information on the surface modification of stainless steels, namely, ion implantation and laser surface processing. Surface hardening techniques, namely, nitriding, carburizing, boriding, and flame hardening, performed to improve the resistance of stainless steel alloys are also reviewed.

Metal surfaces must often be cleaned before subsequent operations to remove unwanted substances such as pigmented drawing compounds, unpigmented oil and grease, chips and cutting fluids, polishing and buffing compounds, rust and scale, and miscellaneous contaminants. The article describes common cleaning processes, including alkaline, electrolytic, solvent, emulsion, molten salt bath, ultrasonic and acid cleaning as well as pickling and abrasive blasting. It also explains how to select the appropriate process for a given soil type and surface composition.

Pickling is the most common of several processes used to remove scale from steel surfaces. This article provides a discussion on pickling solutions, such as sulfuric and hydrochloric acid, and describes the role of inhibitors in acid pickling. It discusses the equipment and processes involved in the batch, continuous, and electrolytic pickling of carbon steel components. The article describes the effects of process variables on scale removal in sulfuric and hydrochloric acid. It concludes with a description of pickling defects, spent pickle liquor disposal, and safety practices.

This article discusses surface engineering of nonferrous metals including aluminum and aluminum alloys, copper and copper alloys, magnesium alloys, nickel and nickel alloys, titanium and titanium alloys, zirconium and hafnium, zinc alloys, and refractory metals and alloys. It describes various techniques to improve functional surface properties and enhance the appearance of product forms. The article discusses various cleaning and finishing techniques such as abrasive blast cleaning, polishing and buffing, barrel burnishing, chemical cleaning, pickling, etching and bright dipping, electrochemical cleaning, mechanical cleaning, and mass finishing. It also examines coating processes such as plating, anodizing, chemical conversion coating, and thermal spray, and concludes with a discussion on oxidation-resistant coatings for refractory metals.

Molten salt, including nitrite/nitrate salts, is the quenching medium most commonly used in austempering and marquenching of ferrous materials. This article describes the use of molten salts in the quenching of ferrous materials. It provides information on the processing and operation of salt quenching including considerations of time, temperature, environment, and safety, as well as critical characteristics such as the composition of the quenchant, agitation, and water additions.

This article discusses the procedures used for pickling nickel and nickel alloys. Nickel alloys can be divided into four groups: high-nickel alloys, nickel-copper alloys, nickel-chromium alloys, and nickel-iron-chromium alloys. Alloys within each composition group that has similar surface conditions are pickled in the same solutions using the same procedures. The article discusses three different surface conditions for pickling these nickel alloys: bright annealed white surface requiring removal of tarnish by flash pickling; bright annealed oxidized surface requiring removal of a layer of reduced oxide, sometimes followed by a flash pickle to brighten; and black or dark-colored surface requiring removal of adherent oxide film or scale. The article also reviews specialized pickling operations of nickel alloys and various cleaning and finishing operations, including grinding, polishing, buffing, brushing, and blasting.

This article describes the uses of the liquid carburizing process carried out in low and high temperature cyanide-containing baths, and details the noncyanide liquid carburizing process which can be accomplished in a bath containing a special grade of carbon. It presents a simple formula for estimating total case depth, and illustrates the influence of carburizing temperature, duration of carburizing, quenching temperature, and quenching medium with the aid of typical hardness gradients. The article provides information on controlling of cyaniding time and temperature, bath composition, and case depth, and presents examples that relate dimensional change to several shapes that vary in complexity. It also provides information on the quenchant removal and salt removal processes, lists the applications of liquid carburizing in cyanide baths, and discusses the process and importance of cyanide waste disposal in detail.

Electrodeposition of tin alloys is used to protect steel against corrosion or wear, to impart resistance to etching, and to facilitate soldering. This article focuses on the compositions, operating conditions, advantages, and limitations of methane sulfonic acid plating solutions and fluoborate plating solutions for tin-lead. It briefly describes the solution compositions and operating conditions of tin-bismuth, tin-nickel, and tin-zinc.

This article addresses surface cleaning, finishing, and coating operations that have proven to be effective for molybdenum, tungsten, tantalum, and niobium. It describes standard procedures for abrasive blasting, molten caustic processing, acid cleaning, pickling, and solvent and electrolytic cleaning as well as mechanical grinding and finishing. The article also provides information on common plating and coating methods, including electroplating, anodizing, and oxidation-resistant coatings.

This article provides a detailed account of the various alkaline and acid plating baths used for electrolytic copper plating. Dilute cyanide and Rochelle cyanide baths, high-efficiency sodium and potassium cyanide baths, alkaline noncyanide copper plating baths, and alkaline copper pyrophosphate baths, are discussed. The article reviews acid plating baths such as copper sulfate bath and copper fluoborate bath. It also presents information on the surface preparation considerations, bath composition, and operating variables of copper plating as well as the equipment used.

The selection of surface treatments for copper and copper alloys is generally based on application requirements for appearance and corrosion resistance. This article describes cleaning, finishing, and coating processes for copper and copper alloys. These processes include pickling and bright dipping, abrasive blast cleaning, chemical and electrochemical cleaning, mass finishing, polishing and buffing, electroless plating, immersion plating, electroplating, passivation, coloring, and organic coatings.

This article reviews specific processing characteristics and forging-related properties of commonly forged families of metals and alloys, including carbon and alloy steels, stainless steels, heat-resistant alloys (iron, cobalt, and nickel base alloys), aluminum alloys, copper and copper alloys, magnesium alloys, and titanium alloys. It provides forging process variables such as stock preparation, heating and cooling of forgings, die lubrication, trimming, and cleaning of these metals and alloys. The article explains the effect of temperature, deformation rate, and die temperature on forgeability and describes the forging methods of these metals and alloys.

This article discusses the classifications, compositions, properties, advantages, disadvantages, limitations, and applications of the most commonly used methods for surface engineering of carbon and alloy steels. These include cleaning methods, finishing methods, conversion coatings, hot-dip coating processes, electrogalvanizing, electroplating, metal cladding, organic coatings, zinc-rich coatings, porcelain enameling, thermal spraying, hardfacing, vapor-deposited coatings, surface modification, and surface hardening via heat treatment.