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Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003013
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
... engineering (durable) plastics. Each of these materials presents unique challenges for disposal, collection, identification, separation, and purification. However, new technologies are being developed steadily, and prospects are good for increased recycling of these resins. Plastics recycling is...
Abstract
This article discusses postconsumer plastics recyclate quantities, the classification of plastics recycling into primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary categories, and how the life cycle of plastics is affected by recycling. The recycling processes of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), which accounts for the largest percentage of plastic recycling, high-density polyethylene (HDPE) plastics, the other large-volume plastic recyclate, as well as vinyl resins and polycarbonate resins are described. The life cycle of plastics has four phases: poly formation, part fabrication, product service, and disposal. Landfilling is still the primary method of final disposal, and incineration is another option, but recycling has become a viable alternative. The article presents a comparison between secondary and tertiary recycling.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003169
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... hydrometallurgical steps may be broadly classified into leaching, purification and metal deposition using aqueous solutions. Although these process steps are predominantly conducted at ambient temperatures, higher temperatures near the boiling point of water or above it (as in pressure leaching) may be necessary for...
Abstract
Ores, which consist of the primary valuable mineral, predominant gangue content, valuable by-products, and detrimental impurities, are extracted and directed to mineral processing. This article describes the mineral processing facilities, such as crushers, grinders, concentrators, separators, and flotation devices that are used for particle size reduction, separation of particles according to their settling rates in fluids and dewatering of concentrate particles. It explains the basic principles, flow diagrams, ore concentrate preparation methods, and equipment of major types of metallurgical processes, including pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, and electrometallurgical processes.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4E
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04e.a0006289
EISBN: 978-1-62708-169-6
... (302 °F). As the aging temperature of the 2024 aluminum alloy is increased above 150 °C, the conductivity increases rather drastically. This increase can be interpreted in terms of the rate of purification of the aluminum matrix from the solute atoms, that is, copper and magnesium in the case of 2024...
Abstract
Heat treatment of aluminum alloys is assessed by various quality-assurance methods that include metallographic examination, hardness measurements, mechanical property tests, corrosion-resistance tests, and electrical conductivity testing. The use of hardness measurements in the quality assurance of heat treated aluminum products is effectively used in conjunction with the measurement of surface electrical conductivity. This article provides a detailed discussion of the error sources in eddy-current conductivity measurements. It also presents useful information on the variation of electrical conductivity of alloy 2024 samples as a function of aging time at different isothermal holding temperatures.
Book: Casting
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 15
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005189
EISBN: 978-1-62708-187-0
... (going back to the winning of ores, if desired), melt purification from scrap recycling, and alloy additions. Chemical processes are also involved in making molds and cores, the casting and solidification processes, the microstructural development of alloys, and the phase changes that occur after casting...
Abstract
This article introduces the fundamental concepts of chemical thermodynamics and chemical kinetics in describing presolidification phenomena. For metallurgical systems, the most important thermodynamic variables are enthalpy and Gibbs free energy. A qualitative demonstration of the interrelationship between phase diagrams and thermodynamics is presented. The article discusses processes that generally limit the rates of chemical processes. These include nucleation of the product phase and interphase mass transport. The article provides a discussion on the dissolution of alloy with melting point lower than bath temperature and dissolution of alloy that is solid at bath temperatures.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001245
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
...-grain coating that contains incorporated sulfur. The sulfur causes the deposit to be electrochemically more reactive than sulfur-free matte, polished, or semibright nickel deposits. Decomposition products of the additives accumulate in solution with time and are removed by purification with activated...
Abstract
This article discusses the process considerations and deposit properties of nickel plating. It describes the Watts solution and the anode materials used. The article focuses on the nickel plating processes used for decorative, engineering, and electroforming purposes. It provides information on the quality control of nickel plating. It concludes with a review of the environmental, health, and safety considerations associated with nickel plating.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006648
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... are used for water purification or desalinization, consist of polyamide on top of a porous polysulfone deposited on a polyester substrate. During purification/desalinization, the membranes are irreversibly degraded by oxidation. Depth profiles of anion and cation species provided a detailed evaluation...
Abstract
This article provides a brief account of glow discharge mass spectrometry (GDMS) for direct determination of trace elements in solid samples and for fast depth profiling in a great variety of innovative materials. It begins by describing the general principles of GDMS. This is followed by a discussion on the various components of a GDMS system as well as commercial GDMS instruments. A description of processes involved in specimen preparation and cleaning in GDMS is then presented. Various problems pertinent to multielemental calibrations in GDMS are discussed along with measures to overcome them. The article further provides information on the processes involved in the analytical setup of parameters in GDMS, covering the steps involved in the analysis of GDMS data. It ends with a section on the application and interpretation of GDMS in the metals industry.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003050
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
... rheological and firing behavior are not affected. At higher contents, the firing conditions must be adjusted to prevent swelling and deformation of the tiles. Another waste material produced during tile manufacture is exhausted lime from purification of gases during the firing process. For unglazed...
Abstract
Ceramic and glass manufacturers take environmental regulations into consideration during all stages of the product cycle, from research and development to purchasing, processing, end use, and disposal. Ceramic and glass products are finding application in the construction industry and as raw materials for other processes. This article describes the recycling of in-process scrap and industrial wastes (fly ash, red mud, metallurgical waste, and other waste products), and applications of these recycled products. It focuses on environmental regulations such as Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and Clean Air Act. The Clean Air Act requires all states to meet minimum emissions standards for nitrogen-oxygen compounds, volatile organic compounds, and carbon monoxide.
Book: Corrosion: Materials
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13b.a0003809
EISBN: 978-1-62708-183-2
... discussed as it applies to steel structures and prepainted steel. Recently, new functions, such as a NO x purification coating material using titanium dioxide photocatalyst, have been added to coatings ( Ref 1 ). In order to preserve global environments, increasing numbers of environmentally friendly...
Abstract
This article describes the paint systems generally used to protect steel structures, steel sheet, and bridges from corrosion, and how they deter corrosion. It provides a discussion on the basic design criteria of steel structures for corrosion protection. The article also explains the differences between prepaint and postpaint, and the steps involved in prepaint processing of steel. It presents the selection guideline for paint system evaluation. The advantages of corrosion protection are also discussed.
Book Chapter
Book: Corrosion: Materials
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13b.a0003825
EISBN: 978-1-62708-183-2
... chloride Chlorination of toluene Chemical HCl absorbers Recovery of by-product HCl Bromine, crude Steam and bromine condensation Chemical Condensers … Bromine, pure Purification from chlorine and organics Chemical Boilers, condensers, complete purification plants … Bromides, organic...
Abstract
Tantalum is one of the most versatile corrosion-resistant metals known. The outstanding corrosion resistance and inertness of tantalum are attributed to a very thin, impervious, protective oxide film that forms on exposure of the metal to slightly anodic or oxidizing conditions. This article provides a discussion on the mechanism of corrosion resistance and on the behavior of tantalum in different corrosive environments, namely, acids; salts; organic compounds; reagents, foods, and pharmaceuticals; body fluids and tissues; and gases. It contains several tables that summarize the effects of acids, salts, and miscellaneous corrosive reagents on tantalum and applications for tantalum equipment in chemical, pharmaceutical, and other industries. Finally, the article presents a discussion on hydrogen embrittlement, the galvanic effects, and cathodic protection of tantalum and describes the corrosion resistance of different types of tantalum-base alloys.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003149
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... is still widely used to express the purity or grade of both unalloyed zirconium and zirconium alloys. The oxygen content of Kroll process sponge varies from about 500 to 2000 ppm, depending on the number of purification steps and the effectiveness of each step. A hardness of 125 HB indicates soft...
Abstract
This article discusses the general characteristics, primary and secondary fabrication methods, product forms, and corrosion resistance of zirconium and hafnium. It describes the physical metallurgy of zirconium and its alloys, providing details on allotropic transformation and anisotropy that profoundly influences the engineering properties of zirconium and its alloys. Tables listing the values for chemical composition and tensile properties for nuclear and nonnuclear grades of zirconium are also provided.
Book: Casting
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 15
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005190
EISBN: 978-1-62708-187-0
... maurer diagram solubility steel thermodynamic properties structural diagrams multicomponent iron-carbon system THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES of cast metals are sensitive to numerous impurities. Because purification of melts generally adds considerable cost to castings, the lowest cost and surest...
Abstract
This article addresses two issues on thermodynamics, namely, the calculation of solubility lines and the calculation of the activity of various components. It discusses alloying elements in terms of their influence on the activity of carbon. The article describes the desulfurization and deoxidation of cast iron and steel. It illustrates the thermodynamics of the iron-carbon system and the iron-silicon system. The article examines solubility and saturation degrees of carbon in multicomponent iron-carbon systems. One of the main applications of the thermodynamics of the iron-carbon system is the calculation of structure-composition correlations. The article concludes with information on the structural diagrams, such as Maurer diagram and Laplanche diagram, for cast iron.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001247
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
..., purification with zinc dust, treatment with activated carbon, and filtration. Sodium carbonate forms in the cyanide bath as a result of the decomposition of sodium cyanide and the reaction of sodium cyanide with carbon dioxide from the air. The preferred method of agitation, if used, is mechanical because...
Abstract
Electrodeposits of cadmium are used to protect steel and cast iron against corrosion. This article provides an overview of the surface preparation of, and brighteners used in, cyanide baths. It focuses on the anode system, current density, deposition rates, and bath temperature of cadmium plating with attention to the materials of construction and equipment used. The article provides a description of the selection of plating method with examples, applications, and several postplating processes of cadmium plating.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006670
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... secondary purification step is performed in a chemical reaction producing trichlorosilane or silane gas, which is subsequently purified by fractional distillation and converted back to silicon through chemical decomposition ( Ref 1 , 2 ). The crystal growth process itself provides another degree of...
Abstract
This article introduces various techniques commonly used in the characterization of semiconductors, namely single-crystal, polycrystalline, amorphous, oxide, organic, and low-dimensional semiconductors and semiconductor devices. The discussion covers material classification, fabrication methods, sample preparation, bulk/elemental characterization methods, microstructural characterization methods, surface characterization methods, and electronic characterization methods.
Book Chapter
Book: Alloy Phase Diagrams
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 27 April 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v03.a0006222
EISBN: 978-1-62708-163-4
... purification? Obviously, one or more external conditions must be altered, with the temperature and pressure being most important. Although it is possible to change haphazardly the temperature and pressure of a metal until the desired effect is produced, it is much easier to choose the optimal conditions from...
Abstract
This article begins with the one-component, or unary, diagram for magnesium. The diagram shows what phases are present as a function of the temperature and pressure. When two metals are mixed in the liquid state to produce a solution, the resulting alloy is called a binary alloy. The article describes the various types of solid solutions such as interstitial solid solutions and substitutional solid solutions. Free energy is important because it determines whether or not a phase transformation is thermodynamically possible. The article discusses the thermodynamics of phase transformations and free energy, as well as kinetics of phase transformations. It concludes with a description of solid-state phase transformations that occur when one or more parent phases, usually on cooling, produces a phase or phases.
Book Chapter
Book: Casting
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 15
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005200
EISBN: 978-1-62708-187-0
..., highly automated furnace Metal production and recycling Production of calcium, barium, lithium, strontium, and magnesium; recycling of hard metals; purification of alloys or melts; removal of zinc and lead Thermic/alumino-thermic vacuum distillation; leaching with zinc and subsequent vacuum...
Abstract
Vacuum induction melting (VIM) is often done as the primary melting operation followed by secondary melting (remelting) operations. This article presents the process description of VIM and illustrates potential processing routes for products, which are cast from VIM ingots or electrodes. It describes the VIM refinement process, which includes removal of trace elements, nitrogen and hydrogen degassing, and deoxidation. The article concludes with information on production of nonferrous materials by VIM.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003032
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
..., food processing equipment, chemical processing equipment, camera and watch cases, automotive and aerospace components, and water purification devices. Table 5 Physical properties and service characteristics of polysulfone resin and fiber-resin composites Properties Neat resin 30% glass...
Abstract
The design and analysis of aerospace and industrial composite components and assemblies requires a detailed knowledge of materials properties, which, in turn, depend on the manufacturing, machining, and assembly methods used. This article, through several tables and graphs, provides the mechanical properties, physical properties, and service characteristics of representative composite fiber-resin combinations, including thermoplastic matrix composites such as thermoplastic polyester resins, thermoplastic polyamide resins, and thermoplastic polysulfone resins, and thermoset matrix composites such as thermoset polyester resins, thermoset phenolic resins, thermoset epoxy resins, thermoset polyimide resins, and thermoset bismaleimide resins.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001233
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... representation of the ECM system for finishing of a die or other complex shapes. The major components include the workpiece, cathode tool, electrolyte, power supply, and electrolyte circulating and purification system. A low voltage (8 to 30 V) is normally applied across the electrodes. A small gap (0.2 to 1 mm...
Abstract
Nontraditional finishing processes include electrochemical machining (ECM), electrodischarge machining (EDM), and laser beam machining. These processes belong to nonabrasive finishing methods where surface generation occurs with an insignificant amount of mechanical interaction between the processing tool and the workpiece surfaces. This article provides information on the equipment used, applications, process capabilities, and limitations of ECM and EDM.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006636
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
..., fragrances, industrial chemicals, pesticides, and pollutants. HPLC/UHPLC may be used for identification (e.g., of illicit drugs in urine), for quantitation (e.g., of sugars and sugar alcohols in food), or for purification (e.g., of an active pharmaceutical ingredient). In the original implementation of...
Abstract
This article describes high-performance liquid chromatography and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography that are used to separate and quantify the chemical components in any sample that can be dissolved in a liquid. This includes pharmaceutical drugs, medicinal plant extracts, food constituents, flavors, fragrances, industrial chemicals, pesticides, and pollutants. Readers are introduced to the most commonly employed mode, reverse-phase chromatography, with examples and an exclusive focus on commercially available instruments and consumables. The discussion covers the various processes involved in liquid chromatography, including assessing a separation of sample components, adjusting the mobile phase, choosing the stationary phase, optimizing a separation, preparing real samples, and analyzing complex samples.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001242
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... rinsing, and good solution control and maintenance, prevent these contaminants from entering or building up in the bath, avoiding the need for frequent purification. Copper pyrophosphate solutions are tolerant of other metallic contamination. Proprietary brighteners are available that refine the grain...
Abstract
This article provides a detailed account of the various alkaline and acid plating baths used for electrolytic copper plating. Dilute cyanide and Rochelle cyanide baths, high-efficiency sodium and potassium cyanide baths, alkaline noncyanide copper plating baths, and alkaline copper pyrophosphate baths, are discussed. The article reviews acid plating baths such as copper sulfate bath and copper fluoborate bath. It also presents information on the surface preparation considerations, bath composition, and operating variables of copper plating as well as the equipment used.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 September 2014
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04b.a0005926
EISBN: 978-1-62708-166-5
Abstract
This article provides a detailed discussion on the types of furnace atmospheres required for heat treating. These include generated exothermic-based atmospheres, generated endothermic-based atmospheres, generated exothermic-endothermic-based atmospheres, generated dissociated-ammonia-based atmospheres, industrial gas nitrogen-base atmospheres, argon atmospheres, and hydrogen atmospheres. Atmospheres for backfilling, partial pressure operation, and quenching in vacuum are also discussed. Furnace atmospheres constitute four major groups of safety hazards in heat treating: fire, explosion, toxicity, and asphyxiation. The article reviews the fundamentals of principal gases and vapors. It describes how the evaluation of the atmospheric requirements of heat treating furnaces is influenced by factors such as cost of operation and capital investment.