This article discusses the methods of pulp production, pulp processing, pulp bleaching, and paper manufacturing. It describes various types of digesters, their construction materials, the corrosion problems encountered, and methods to protect these digesters from corrosion. The article examines the corrosion problems in high-yield mechanical pulping, sulfite process, neutral sulfite semichemical pulping, chemical recovery, tall oil plants, wastewater treatment, and recovery boilers. It explains the stages of chlorine-based and nonchlorine bleaching, process water reuse for elemental chlorine-free and nonchlorine bleaching stages, selection of material for bleaching equipment, developments in oxygen bleaching, and the use of highly corrosion-resistant materials for bleach plant equipment. The article reviews the materials used in the construction of paper machine components and specific corrosion problems that affect them. It discusses the composition and corrosive nature of white water. The article also addresses the corrosion and chemical recovery associated with kraft pulping liquors.

Thermal spray coatings, along with certain proprietary sealants, are widely used in the paper manufacturing industry for corrosion and wear resistance and to impart special surface characteristics. This article discusses the steps involved in the paper manufacturing process. Most modern papermaking machines are based on variations of the Fourdrinier machine. The article describes four operational sections of the machine: forming, press, drying, and calendar. It provides an overview of the machine components where thermal spray coatings are used, namely, digesters, blow tanks, suction roll, center press rolls, yankee dryer rolls, calendar rolls, doctor/scalping blades, and cutting equipment.

Maintenance coating is an important part of any meaningful asset-preservation strategy in facilities producing pulp and paper and other chemicals. This article discusses maintenance coating for carbon steel structures and process equipment exposed to normal external pulp and paper mill atmospheric conditions. The important requirements and standards for surface preparation are emphasized and common issues encountered in maintenance coating projects are described.

This article provides a summary of the concepts discussed in the Section “Corrosion in Specific Industries” in the ASM Handbook, Volume 13C:Corrosion: Environments and Industries. This Section applies the fundamental understanding of corrosion and knowledge of materials of construction to practical applications. The industries addressed are nuclear power, fossil and alternative fuel, land transportation, air transportation, microelectronics, chemical processing, pulp and paper, food and beverage, pharmaceutical and medical technology, petroleum and petrochemical, building, and mining and metal processing.

Stainless steels are iron-base alloys containing minimum of approximately 11% Cr, and owing to its excellent corrosion resistance, are used for wide range of applications. These applications include nuclear reactor vessels, heat exchangers, oil industry tubular, chemical processing components, pulp and paper industries, furnace parts, and boilers used in fossil fuel electric power plants. The article provides a brief introduction on corrosion resistance of wrought stainless steel and its designations. It lists the chemical composition and describes the physical and mechanical properties of five major stainless steel families, of which four are based on the crystallographic structure of the alloys, including martensitic, ferritic, austenitic, or duplex. The fifth is precipitation-hardenable alloys, based on the type of heat treatment used. The article further discusses the factors in the selection of stainless steel, namely corrosion resistance, fabrication characteristics, product forms, thermally induced embrittlement, mechanical properties in specific temperature ranges, and product cost.

The chemical composition of Kevlar aramid fiber is poly para-phenyleneterephthalamide. Para-aramid fibers belong to a class of materials known as liquid crystalline polymers. This article discusses the manufacture of aramid fibers and the major fiber forms, such as continuous filament yarns, rovings, woven fabrics, discontinuous staple and spun yarns, fabrics, and pulp. Key representative properties of para-aramid fibers are listed in a table. The article reviews the properties of aramid fibers, including tensile modulus, tensile strength, creep and fatigue, compressive properties, toughness, thermal properties, as well as electrical and optical properties. It concludes with a discussion on the environmental behavior of para-aramid fibers.

This article presents a brief history and the uses of the anodic protection technique. It compares anodic and cathodic protection and describes the design considerations of the anodic protection system. The article discusses the specific requirements of equipment required for anodic protection. It also explains the applications and economic aspects of anodic protection, with examples.

Stainless steels are an important class of engineering alloys used in both wrought and cast form for a wide range of applications and in many environments. This article aids in the selection of stainless steels based on weldability and service integrity. Stainless steels are classified by microstructure and are described as ferritic, martensitic, austenitic, or duplex. The article illustrates compositional ranges of the ferritic, martensitic, austenitic, and duplex alloys in the Schaeffler diagram. It describes the metallurgical aspects of welded stainless steels to be considered for particular engineering applications and service conditions. The article discusses the microstructural evolution of the weld metal and the heat-affected zone, susceptibility to defect formation during welding, mechanical and corrosion properties, and weld process tolerance.

This article analyzes the estimates of the cost of corrosion, made in various countries at various times. The data are extrapolated to a 2004 base and then projected to the global economy. The chronological order of the countries are the United States of America, the United Kingdom, Australia, Japan, Canada, Germany, Poland, South Africa, Czechoslovakia, Belgium, Netherlands, Sweden, Finland, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, Kuwait, India, and the Basque Region.

Corrosion problems and materials selection for emissions control equipment can be difficult because of varied corrosive compounds present and the severe environments encountered. This article discusses the selection of materials for construction of flue gas desulfurization systems. It addresses the problems associated with materials for incinerator off-gas treatment equipment. The off-gases can be classified according to their corrosiveness as: industrial chemical, hospital, municipal solid, and sewage sludge. The article provides information on the selection of materials for the three most common types of dust collection equipment used in bulk solids processing, namely, fabric filters, electrostatic precipitators, and wet scrubbers. It also discusses a wide variety of corrosion problems encountered in chemical and pharmaceutical industries.

This article first describes the two methods used in the 1998 U.S. corrosion cost study. In the first method, the cost was determined by summing the costs for corrosion control methods and contract services. In the second, the cost of corrosion was first determined for specific industry sectors and then extrapolated to calculate a national total corrosion cost. The article then reports the results and conclusions of the study. It concludes with information on corrosion prevention strategies.

This article describes the resin and fabrication requirements associated with fiberglass-reinforced plastic equipment. It provides a discussion on various resins and their resistance to various environments. These include polyester, epoxy, epoxy vinyl-ester, and furan and phenolic thermosetting resins. The article concludes with a discussion on the curing system of thermosetting resins.

Ores, which consist of the primary valuable mineral, predominant gangue content, valuable by-products, and detrimental impurities, are extracted and directed to mineral processing. This article describes the mineral processing facilities, such as crushers, grinders, concentrators, separators, and flotation devices that are used for particle size reduction, separation of particles according to their settling rates in fluids and dewatering of concentrate particles. It explains the basic principles, flow diagrams, ore concentrate preparation methods, and equipment of major types of metallurgical processes, including pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, and electrometallurgical processes.

Thermal spray is a generic term for a group of coating processes used to apply metallic, ceramic, cermet, and some polymeric coatings for a broad range of applications. This article provides a brief description of commercially important thermal spray processes, namely, powder-fed flame spray, wire- or rod-fed flame spray, electric arc spray, plasma arc spray, vacuum plasma spray, high-velocity oxyfuel spray, detonation gun deposition, and cold spray, and their advantages. It provides details on the microstructural characteristics of thermal spray coatings. The article also presents information on a wide variety of materials that can be thermal sprayed, such as metals, ceramics, intermetallics, composites, cermets, polymers, and functionally gradient materials. Tables are included, which list the thermal spray processes and coating properties of importance for various industrial applications.

Horizontal centrifugal casting is used to cast parts having an axis of revolution. This article discusses the operations of three types of horizontal casting machine: the flanged shaft machine, the horizontal roller-type machine, and the double-face plate machine. It provides information on expendable and permanent molds used for centrifugal casting. The parameters and operations of the horizontal centrifugal casting process, including pouring and solidification, as well as the applications are described.

Nickel in elemental form or alloyed with other metals and materials has made significant contributions to our present-day society and promises to continue to supply materials for a demanding future. This article provides a historical overview and physical metallurgy of nickel and nickel alloys. It lists and describes the compositions, mechanical and physical properties, and applications of commercial nickel and its alloys. The article briefly explains the forms of corrosion resulting from the exposure of nickel alloys to aqueous environments. It provides valuable information on the commercial forms of nickel alloys, namely, nickel-copper alloys, nickel-chromium and nickel-chromium-iron series, iron-nickel-chromium alloys, controlled-expansion alloys, nickel-iron low-expansion alloys, soft magnetic alloys, and welding alloys.

This article describes the relationship between failure analysis and materials selection and a basic procedure for performing a failure analysis. It discusses the methods for analyzing failures to improve materials selection and presents examples that illustrate the use of failure analysis in materials selection and materials development/refinement.

Titanium has been recognized as an element with good mechanical and physical properties, alloying characteristics, and corrosion resistance. Providing an outline of general characteristics and types of titanium alloys, this article discusses the contemporary technology of titanium along with its market developments. It also discusses the application of titanium and titanium alloys in corrosive environments and in aerospace and automotive industries. The article describes the developments in titanium processing and materials technologies, which include the development of sponge production and melting processes, oxide dispersion-strengthened alloys by powder metallurgy techniques, titanium-base intermetallic compounds, and titanium-matrix composites.