This article is a detailed account of the principles of electron-excited X-ray microanalysis. It begins by discussing the physical basis of electron-excited X-ray microanalysis and the advantages and limitations of energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) and wavelength dispersive spectrometry for electron probe microanalysis. Key concepts for performing qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis by electron-excited X-ray spectrometry are then presented. Several sources that lead to measurement uncertainties in the k-ratio/matrix corrections protocol are provided, along with the significance of the raw analytical total. Sections on accuracy of the standards-based k-ratio/matrix corrections protocol with EDS and processes of analysis when severe peak overlap occurs are also included. The article provides information on low-atomic-number elements, iterative qualitative-quantitative analysis for complex compositions, and significance of standardless analysis in the EDS software. It ends with a section on the processes involved in elemental mapping for major and minor constituents.

Failure analysis is a process that is performed in order to determine the causes or factors that have led to an undesired loss of functionality. This article is intended to demonstrate proper approaches to failure analysis work. The goal of the proper approach is to allow the most useful and relevant information to be obtained. The discussion covers the principles and approaches in failure analysis work, objectives and scopes of failure analysis, the planning stages for failure analysis, the preparation of a protocol for a failure analysis, practices used by failure analysts, and procedures of failure analysis.

Failure analysis is a process that is performed to determine the causes or factors that have led to an undesired loss of functionality. This article describes some of the factors and conditions that might be considered when approaching a failure analysis problem. It focuses on the key principles, objectives, practices, and procedures of failure analysis. The article provides guidelines on the preparation of a protocol for a failure analysis. It also demonstrates the proper approaches to failure analysis.

This article provides a detailed account of particle-induced x-ray emission (PIXE), covering the basic principles of PIXE analysis and calibration and quality-assurance protocols employed. A comparative study on PIXE and x-ray fluorescence is then presented. The article also discusses the applications of PIXE in atmospheric physics and chemistry, external proton milliprobes and historical analysis, and PIXE microprobes.

This article provides information on the factors influencing the selection of the proper corrosion-resistant coating system. It focuses on the proper execution of surface preparation and the available surface preparation methods. The preparation process includes the removal of visible contaminants, removal of invisible contaminants, and roughening of the surface. Solvent or chemical washing, steam cleaning, hand tool cleaning, power tool cleaning, water blasting, and abrasive blast cleaning, are some preparation methods discussed. The article describes the most common application techniques of coating as well as the equipment used. An overview of some of the most common coating inspection points and inspection equipment is also provided.

When planning a corrosion-testing program, it is advisable to select the testing conditions carefully in order to produce ranking parameters with minimal influence from testing conditions while rich in engineering significance. This article provides a discussion on test objectives, metal composition and metallurgical conditions, test specimen preparation, and corrosion damage assessment. It describes a strategy for planning the design of controlled and uncontrolled factorial experiments. The article contains a table that lists the elements of an iterative process for the experimental design. It illustrates the experimental designs applied to corrosion testing.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) has unique capabilities for analyzing fracture surfaces. This article discusses the basic principles and practice of SEM, with an emphasis on its applications in fractography. The topics include an introduction to SEM instrumentation, imaging and analytical capabilities, specimen preparation, and the interpretation of fracture features. SEM can be subdivided into four systems, namely, illuminating/imaging, information, display, and vacuum systems. The article also describes the major criteria and techniques of SEM specimen preparation, and the general features of ductile and brittle fracture modes.

This article discusses the standard conduct of coating failure investigation. As each failure is different, a specific coating failure may require increased emphasis on a given step, or additional work and/or steps may be required. This article covers the following topics: obtaining and analyzing background information, preliminary determination of site conditions, inspection equipment requirements, coating failure site investigation, sampling techniques, sample chain of custody, coordination with the coatings laboratory, report preparation, and sample retention.

This article presents a summary of the chemical fundamentals, general techniques, limitations, and applications of chemical spot testing as well as a brief overview of innovations and specialized applications. A list of selected reagents, including abbreviated instructions for preparing the reagent solution(s), for performing the spot test, and for interpreting the results, is also included. The article discusses two specialized applications of qualitative analysis, namely illicit drug identification and spacecraft drinking water quality testing. It also contains tables listing common presumptive tests for detecting anions and cations in aqueous solution.

This article focuses on laboratory atomic force microscopes (AFMs) used in ambient air and liquid environments. It begins with a discussion on the origin of AFM and development trends occurring in AFM. This is followed by a section on the general principles of AFM and a comprehensive list of AFM scanning modes. There is a brief description of how each mode works and what types of applications can be made with each mode. Some of the processes involved in preparation of samples (bulk materials and those placed on a substrate) scanned in an AFM are then presented. The article provides information on the factors applicable to the accuracy and precision of AFM measurements. It ends by discussing the applications for AFMs in the fields of science, technology, and engineering.

A test plan specifies material properties to be evaluated, selects test methods, eliminates options offered by standard test methods by selecting specific specimen and test configurations, and defines success criteria. This article discusses various testing objectives that affect the execution of testing programs. The testing objectives include development of test matrices, testing standards, specimen preparation, environmental conditioning, instrumentation and data acquisition, failure modes, and data interpretation and recording.

Thermomechanical analysis (TMA) is a thermal analysis technique in which the length of a specimen is precisely measured versus temperature and time as the specimen is subjected to controlled heating and cooling. This article discusses the various factors and processes involved in TMA. The discussion covers the general principles, equipment used, specimen preparation process, calibration conditions, data analysis steps, and examples of the applications and interpretation of TMA.

This article focuses on the visual or macroscopic examination of damaged materials and interpretation of damage and fracture features. Analytical tools available for evaluations of corrosion and wear damage features include energy dispersive spectroscopy, electron probe microanalysis, Auger electron spectroscopy, secondary ion mass spectroscopy, and X-ray powder diffraction. The article discusses the analysis and interpretation of base material composition and microstructures. Preparation and examination of metallographic specimens in failure analysis are also discussed. The article concludes with a review of the evaluation of polymers and ceramic materials in failure analysis.

This article begins with discussion on forgeability and the factors affecting the forgeability of aluminum and aluminum alloys. It describes the types of forging methods and equipment and reviews critical elements in the overall aluminum forging process: die materials, die design, and die manufacture. The article discusses the critical aspects of various manufacturing elements of aluminum alloy forging, including the preparation of the forging stock, preheating stock, die heating, lubrication, trimming, forming and repair, cleaning, heat treatment, and inspection. It concludes with a discussion on the forging of advanced aluminum materials and aluminum alloy precision forgings.

This article presents a detailed account of ion chromatography (IC). It begins by describing the principles of common separation modes in IC. This is followed by a section on the different modes of detection, namely suppressed conductivity detection, nonsuppressed conductivity detection, spectrophotometric detection, and electrochemical detection. Various separation modes in IC are then described. The article further provides information on various eluents species, analyte range, and sample preparation techniques in IC. It ends by providing information on the instrumentation and applications and future directions of IC.

Examination of a damaged component involves a chain of activities that, first and foremost, requires good observation and documentation. Following receipt and documentation, the features of damage can be recorded and their cause(s) investigated, as this article briefly describes, for typical types of damage experienced for metallic components. This article discusses the processes involved in visual or macroscopic examination of damaged material; the interpretation of fracture features, corrosion, and wear damage features; and the analysis of base material composition. It covers the processes involved in the selection of metallurgical samples, the preparation and examination of metallographic specimens in failure analysis, and the analysis and interpretation of microstructures. Examination and evaluation of polymers and ceramic materials in failure analysis are also briefly discussed.

This article explains how ceramic powders are made. It begins by briefly describing the raw materials used in structural clay products, whitewares, refractories, and advanced ceramics. It then examines various additives that promote uniformity at different stages of the process. After a description of the comminution process (wet and dry milling methods), it discusses batching and mixing operations and granulation methods. The article also deals with the effect of process variables and the steps involved in chemical synthesis, including preparation from solution and gas-phase reactions, filtration and washing, and powder recovery techniques. It concludes with a discussion on characterization, centering on size distribution analysis, specific surface area, density, porosity chemical composition, phase, and surface composition.

This article provides a detailed account of X-ray spectroscopy used for elemental identification and determination. It begins with an overview of the operating principles of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer, as well as a comparison of the operating principles of wavelength-dispersive spectrometer (WDS) and energy-dispersive spectrometer (EDS). This is followed by a discussion on the mechanism and effects of X-ray radiation, X-ray emission, and X-ray absorption. The article then discusses components used, operation, and applications of WDS and EDS. Some of the factors and processes involved in sample preparation for XRF analysis are also included. The article further provides information on the practical procedure for and the applications of WDS and EDS qualitative and quantitative analyses.

Multiple-layer alloy electrodeposition involves the formation of an inhomogeneous alloy consisting of lamellae of different composition. This article reviews the process description, engineering parameters, characterization, and applications of multiple-layer alloys. Pulsed-current plating and pulsed-potential plating are also discussed.

This article primarily considers the problem of sampling bulk materials, including minerals, metals, environmentally important substances, and industrial raw materials and waste products. It provides useful information on sample types, sampling plan, optimizing sampling resources, practical aspects of sampling, and how to ensure the quality of sampling.