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Book Chapter
Gage Repeatability and Reproducibility in Hardness Testing
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 8
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v08.a0003277
EISBN: 978-1-62708-176-4
.... That is, as softer and softer materials are tested, one should expect to get greater and greater variation in the uniformity of the hardness readings obtained. Therefore, GRR studies should be done at the hardness range expected from production parts; if instruments are tested at a different hardness range...
Abstract
The gage repeatability and reproducibility (GRR) study is a procedure for determining the repeatability of a test instrument and the reproducibility of a specific gage in operation. This article reviews the general method of GRR studies and its application for indentation hardness testing. It describes a long method and a short method for evaluation of GRR. The article analyzes factors of hardness testing instruments and provides guidelines for hardness tests. It concludes with a list of suggestions that can improve hardness tests.
Book Chapter
Mechanical Testing of Threaded Fasteners and Bolted Joints
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 8
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v08.a0003323
EISBN: 978-1-62708-176-4
... fasteners include product hardness, proof load, axial and wedge tension testing of full-sized products, tension testing of machined test specimens, and total extension at fracture testing. Product hardness, proof load, and cone proof-load test are the test methods for internally threaded fasteners...
Abstract
This article provides an overview of the relationships between torque, angle-of-turn, tension, and friction and explains how they are measured and evaluated. It focuses on the principle, test equipment, procedure, evaluation, and test report of various testing methods, namely, friction coefficient testing, torque tension testing, locknut testing, and angular ductility and rotational capacity tests. The article reviews the basic methods and fundamental principles for mechanical testing of externally and internally threaded fasteners and bolted joints. The test methods for externally threaded fasteners include product hardness, proof load, axial and wedge tension testing of full-sized products, tension testing of machined test specimens, and total extension at fracture testing. Product hardness, proof load, and cone proof-load test are the test methods for internally threaded fasteners. The article concludes with a description of torque-angle signature analysis and the specification of measurement accuracy for torque and clamp force.
Book Chapter
Selection and Industrial Applications of Hardness Tests
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 8
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v08.a0003276
EISBN: 978-1-62708-176-4
...: Hardness level (and scale limitations) Specimen thickness Size and shape of the workpiece Specimen surface flatness and surface condition Indent location Production rates Type of material being tested The first six factors in this list are reviewed in this section; the remaining...
Abstract
This article reviews the factors that have a significant effect on the selection and interpretation of results of different hardness tests, namely, Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers, and Knoop tests. The factors concerned include hardness level (and scale limitations), specimen thickness, size and shape of the workpiece, specimen surface flatness and surface condition, and indent location. The article focuses on the selection for specific types of materials, such as steels, cast irons, nonferrous alloys, and plastics, and industrial applications, of hardness tests.
Book: Powder Metallurgy
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 7
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 September 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v07.a0006056
EISBN: 978-1-62708-175-7
... of these analytical methods provides high quality, cost-effective products to the market. The value of each analytical test is dependent on proper implementation of standard test methods and representative sampling. Tests conducted on particles, granules, and powder blends require sampling methods that account...
Abstract
Quality control of cemented carbides includes the evaluation of physical and chemical properties of constituent raw material powders, powder blends/formulations, green compacts, and fully dense finished product. This article provides a summary of the underlying principles and size ranges for the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard methods of particle sizing and distribution. It presents the methods used to analyze the chemical composition of cemented carbide materials in a tabular form. The article also presents information on microstructural evaluation and physical and mechanical property evaluation of cemented carbides.
Book Chapter
Hot-Rolled Steel Bars and Shapes
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1990
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v01.a0001014
EISBN: 978-1-62708-161-0
... of higher-carbon steel and most hot-rolled alloy steel bars must be heat treated in order to attain the hardness and microstructure best suited for the final product or to make them suitable for processing. Such heat treatment consists of one or more of the following: some form of annealing, stress...
Abstract
Hot-rolled steel bars and other hot-rolled steel shapes are produced from ingots, blooms, or billets converted from ingots or from strand cast blooms or billets and comprise a variety of sizes and cross sections. Most carbon steel and alloy steel hot-rolled bars and shapes contain surface imperfections with varying degrees of severity. Seams, laps, and slivers are probably the most common defects in hot-rolled bars and shapes. Another condition that could be considered a surface defect is decarburization. Hot-rolled steel bars and shapes can be produced to chemical composition ranges or limits, mechanical property requirements, or both. Hot-rolled carbon steel bars are produced to two primary quality levels: merchant quality and special quality. Merchant quality is the least restrictive descriptor for hot-rolled carbon steel bars. Special quality bars are employed when end use, method of fabrication, or subsequent processing treatment requires characteristics not available in merchant quality bars.
Book Chapter
Hardenability of Carbon and Alloy Steels
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003103
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
...; and the quenching medium that should be used in hardening. alloying carbon steels hardenability hardenability testing heat-treated products quenching of steel HARDENABILITY OF STEEL is the property that determines the depth and distribution of hardness induced by quenching. Steels that exhibit deep...
Abstract
Hardenability is usually the single most important factor in the selection of steel for heat-treated parts. The hardenability of steel is best assessed by studying the hardening response of the steel to cooling in a standardized configuration in which a variety of cooling rates can be easily and consistently reproduced from one test to another. These include the Jominy end-quench test, the carburized hardenability test, and the surface-area-center hardenability test. This article discusses the effects of varying carbon content as well as the influence of different alloying elements on hardenability of steels. The basic information needed before a steel with adequate hardenability can be specified as the as-quenched hardness required prior to tempering to final hardness that will produce the best stress-resisting microstructure; the depth below the surface to which this hardness must extend; and the quenching medium that should be used in hardening.
Book Chapter
Mechanical Testing in Failure Analysis
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006761
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... Relationship among Brinell Hardness, Vickers Hardness, Rockwell Hardness, Superficial Hardness, Knoop Hardness, Scleroscope Hardness, and Leeb Hardness ,” E 140-12, ASTM International 6. “ Standard Test Methods and Definitions for Mechanical Testing of Steel Products ,” A 370-19e1, ASTM International...
Abstract
Mechanical testing is an evaluative tool used by the failure analyst to collect data regarding the macro- and micromechanical properties of the materials being examined. This article provides information on a few important considerations regarding mechanical testing that the failure analyst must keep in mind. These considerations include the test location and orientation, the use of raw material certifications, the certifications potentially not representing the hardware, and the determination of valid test results. The article introduces the concepts of various mechanical testing techniques and discusses the advantages and limitations of each technique when used in failure analysis. The focus is on various types of static load testing, hardness testing, and impact testing. The testing types covered include uniaxial tension testing, uniaxial compression testing, bend testing, hardness testing, macroindentation hardness, microindentation hardness, and the impact toughness test.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1990
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v01.a0001042
EISBN: 978-1-62708-161-0
... of measuring 102 mm (4 in.) diam disks after hardening and tempering. With P/M high-speed tool steels, cracking and variation of hardness are minimized because of their fine-grained, uniform structure. Fig. 6 Out-of-roundness measurements on test disks after hardening and tempering. Test disks machined...
Abstract
The powder metallurgy (P/M) process has been used primarily for the production of advanced high-speed tool steels. However, the P/M process is also being applied to the manufacture of improved cold-work and hot-work tool steels. The basic heat treatments for P/M high-speed tool steels include preheating, austenitizing, quenching, and tempering. This article describes manufacturing properties, cutting tool properties, and applications of P/M high-speed tool steels. It discusses the development of P/M high-speed alloy steels that cannot be made by conventional methods because of their high carbon, nitrogen, or alloy contents. For high-speed tool steels, a number of important end-user properties have been improved by powder processing; machinability, grindability, dimensional control during heat treatment, and cutting performance under difficult conditions where high edge toughness is essential. Several of these advantages also apply to P/M cold- and hot-work tool steels, which, compared to conventional tool steels, offer better toughness and ductility for cold-work tooling, better thermal fatigue life, and greater toughness for hot-work tooling.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4C
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 09 June 2014
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04c.a0005857
EISBN: 978-1-62708-167-2
...) are widely used in the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics(USSR) for product depth and hardness inspection after induction heat treatment. Measurement is done by placing a magnetic yoke in contact with the surface of a ferromagnetic material under test to form a magnetic circuit. The yoke is excited...
Abstract
Inspection involves two types of testing, namely, destructive and non-destructive. This article provides an overview of the various inspection plans, such as first-article inspection and periodic tests done by destructive metallurgical testing and the final inspection done by the application of non-destructive technology. It describes the processes involved in destructive methods, such as surface hardness measurement, induction hardening pattern and heat-affected zone inspection, and the examination of microstructure before and after induction hardening. It also discusses non-destructive evaluation techniques for defect detection and microstructure characterization as well as non-destructive evaluation for real-time monitoring of induction process.
Book Chapter
Significance of Mechanical Properties in Design and Application
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 2B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v02b.a0006544
EISBN: 978-1-62708-210-5
... strength for aluminum alloys has a relatively wide band ( Fig. 8 ) ( Ref 14 ). Thus, tensile testing often is specified as the mechanical property test for heat treated aluminum products, because the correlation between hardness and either tensile strength or yield strength of aluminum alloy is not as good...
Abstract
Understanding the mechanical properties of aluminum alloys is useful for the designer for choosing the best alloy and establishing appropriate allowable stress values, and for the aluminum producer to control the fabrication processes. This article discusses the nature and significance of mechanical property data and of stress-strain curves detailing the effects of mechanical properties on the design and selection of aluminum alloys. The properties include tensile, compressive, shear, bearing, creep and creep-rupture, fatigue, and fracture resistance properties.
Book Chapter
Indirect Nondestructive Measurements of Die Wear in Stamping Productions
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14b.a0009001
EISBN: 978-1-62708-186-3
... conditions at selected locations during high-volume production of the DP600 parts. This was in conjunction with laboratory wear tests to verify a theoretical formula of die wear ( Ref 1 ). The laboratory tests are described in a separate Handbook Online article, “Prediction and Direct Measurements of Die...
Abstract
The measurement techniques for die wear can be classified into the following two categories: direct measurements, which are done using lab techniques; and indirect nondestructive measurements, which are done by plant monitoring. This article describes the details of the plant monitoring techniques, along with comprehensive discussions on the measured wear data based on roughness and hardness of die surfaces. It presents a comparison between the predicted and measured die wear rates.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 8
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v08.a0003275
EISBN: 978-1-62708-176-4
... Abstract Miscellaneous hardness tests encompass a number of test methods that have been developed for specific applications. These include dynamic, or "rebound," hardness tests using a Leeb tester or a Scleroscope; static indentation tests on rubber or plastic products using the durometer...
Abstract
Miscellaneous hardness tests encompass a number of test methods that have been developed for specific applications. These include dynamic, or "rebound," hardness tests using a Leeb tester or a Scleroscope; static indentation tests on rubber or plastic products using the durometer or IRHD testers; scratch hardness tests; and ultrasonic microindentation testing. This article reviews the procedures, equipment, and applications associated with these alternate hardness test methods.
Book: Machining
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 16
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1989
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v16.a0002122
EISBN: 978-1-62708-188-7
..., nonuniform microstructure, accompanied by poor toughness and grind-ability, and also present problems of size control and hardness uniformity in heat treatment. Rapid solidification of the atomized powders used in the production of P/M high-speed tool steels eliminates such segregation and produces a very...
Abstract
This article describes procedures for producing powder metallurgy high-speed tool steel powder by inert-gas atomization, followed by compaction by hot isostatic pressing. These include the anti-segregation process (ASP) and the crucible particle metallurgy (CPM) process. The article reviews the properties of ASP and CPM and summarizes the procedures to heat treat ASP high-speed tool steels. It discusses the processing steps, advantages, and applications of the FULDENS process that uses water-atomized powders compacted by vacuum sintering. The article also provides information on the applications of tool steels.
Book Chapter
Macroindentation Hardness Testing
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 8
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v08.a0003271
EISBN: 978-1-62708-176-4
...-Rockwell Hardness Testing of Metallic Materials BS 5600-4.5 Powder Metallurgical Materials and Products—Methods of Testing and Chemical Analysis of Hardmetals—Rockwell Hardness Test (Scale A) BS EN ISO 6508-1 Metallic Materials—Rockwell Hardness Test—Part 1: Test Method (Scales A, B, C, D, E, F, G...
Abstract
This article describes the principal methods for macroindentation hardness testing by the Brinell, Vickers, and Rockwell methods. For each method, the test types and indenters, scale limitations, testing machines, calibration, indenter selection and geometry, load selection and impression size, testing methodology, and testing of specific materials are also discussed.
Book Chapter
Hardenability of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1990
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v01.a0001029
EISBN: 978-1-62708-161-0
... guide. alloying carbon steels H-steels hardenability hardenability limits hardenability selection charts hardenability testing low-alloy steels quenching of steel HARDENABILITY OF STEEL is the property that determines the depth and distribution of hardness induced by quenching. Steels...
Abstract
Hardenability of steel is the property that determines the depth and distribution of hardness induced by quenching. Hardenability is usually the single most important factor in the selection of steel for heat-treated parts. The hardenability of a steel is best assessed by studying the hardening response of the steel to cooling in a standardized configuration in which a variety of cooling rates can be easily and consistently reproduced from one test to another. These include the Jominy end-quench test, the carburized hardenability test, and the air hardenability test. Tests that are more suited to very low hardenability steels include the hot-brine test and the surface-area-center test. The article discusses the effects of varying carbon content as well as the influence of different alloying elements. It includes charts and a table that serve as a general steel hardenability selection guide.
Book Chapter
Methods of Measuring Case Depth in Steels
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2013
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04a.a0005795
EISBN: 978-1-62708-165-8
... methods of measuring case depth in steels, including chemical methods such as the combustion analysis and spectrographic analysis, microhardness test method, macroscopic and microscopic visual methods, and nondestructive methods. It contains a table that provides approximate equivalent hardness numbers...
Abstract
Case depth is the normal distance from the surface of the steel to the start of the core. Measurement of case depth is highly sensitive to the type of case hardening, original steel composition, quenching condition, and even to the testing method. This article describes the various methods of measuring case depth in steels, including chemical methods such as the combustion analysis and spectrographic analysis, microhardness test method, macroscopic and microscopic visual methods, and nondestructive methods. It contains a table that provides approximate equivalent hardness numbers for steel.
Image
Effect of specimen orientation on fatigue limit. Orientations are relative ...
Available to Purchase
in Fatigue Resistance of Steels
> Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels, and High-Performance Alloys
Published: 01 January 1990
for each grade were from the same heat of steel, but the tensile and fatigue specimens were heat treated separately, accounting for one discrepancy in hardness readings between the chart and the tabulation above. Fatigue limit is for 100 × 10 6 cycles. Steel No. of tests (a) Average tensile
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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 8
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v08.a0003272
EISBN: 978-1-62708-176-4
... is very useful because the test work is automated, allowing the metallographer to do other tasks. Hardness Conversions Sometimes it is desirable to know the equivalent hardness in a scale other than the Vickers or Knoop. It is not uncommon for product specifications to define the hardness...
Abstract
This article provides a discussion on the equipment used and specimen preparation for microindentation hardness testing (MHT) such as the Vickers hardness test and the Knoop hardness test. It describes the important test considerations to be considered during MHT. The article also discusses the most common hardness conversions and the applications of MHT.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001267
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... High as-plated hardness for wear application on aluminum, beryllium, copper, and other base materials that cannot be precipitation hardened Production Type IV: 5–9% P, bal Ni 520–650 Alkali, brine, caustic solutions General wear and corrosion resistance applications, including application...
Abstract
Metallic nonelectrolytic alloy coatings produced from aqueous solutions are commercially used in several industries, including electronics, aerospace, medical, oil and gas production, chemical processing, and automotive. Nonelectrolytic coating systems use two types of reactions to deposit metal onto a part: electroless and displacement. This article explains the various types of electroless and dispersion alloy coating systems. It provides information on the processing of parts, process control, deposit analysis, and equipment used for coating nonelectrolytic displacement alloys. The article concludes with a discussion on the safety and environmental concerns associated with nonelectrolytic deposition processes.
Book Chapter
Steel Heat Treating Process Control—An Introduction
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 September 2014
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04b.a0005968
EISBN: 978-1-62708-166-5
... have an effect on temperature uniformity. If it is determined that the furnace qualified work zone temperature uniformity characteristics could be affected, production in this furnace cannot resume until a successful TUS has been achieved. Ongoing TUS testing not only provides evidence concerning...
Abstract
The heat treatment of steel involves a number of processes (such as stress relieving, normalizing, annealing etc) to condition the microstructure and obtain desired properties. This article discusses typical heat treating process control procedures for carbon and low-alloy steels, as well as the importance of time, and temperature control in heat treatment. Temperature Uniformity Survey, a testing procedure intended to map variations in temperature throughout the furnace work zone, helps in precise control of temperature. The article focuses on the measuring instruments used to determine gas pressure, vacuum level, gas flow, and gas composition. It focuses on their measuring quenchant characteristics, including bulk temperature, viscosity, composition, and cooling efficiency. The article describes the procedures for detecting variability in the incoming product. It presents, through an example, the general application of design of experiments techniques to locate and tune vital process parameters. The devices used in the control process of mechanical components are also reviewed.
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