This article provides a discussion on the principles and terminology of engineering economy and their application to a number of generic corrosion-related problems. It describes the methods of economic analysis that lead to single measure numbers. The article explains the application of the present worth method. Some of the most common methods of depreciation are provided. The article presents the generalized equations that will simplify the solution of a large percentage of engineering economy problems. It also discusses the calculation of the present worth and service life of each material.

Value analysis (VA) is a team problem-solving process to improve the value of a product from the viewpoint of a user. This article presents a comparison between VA and total quality management in materials selection and design. It discusses the key attributes, concepts, and activities of the VA. The application of value engineering in U.S. government contracts and the construction industry is reviewed. The article describes the eight phases of the VA process: preparation, information, analysis, creation, synthesis, development, presentation and report, and implementation and follow-up. It presents case studies that illustrate the materials-related aspects of the VA process.

Reliability-centered maintenance (RCM) is a systematic methodology for preventing failures. This article discusses the history of RCM and describes the key characteristics of an RCM process, which involves asking seven questions. The first four questions comprise a form of failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA), and therefore, the article explains the approach of RCM to FMEA and the failure management policies available under RCM. It reviews the ways that RCM classifies failure effects in terms of consequences and details how RCM uses failure consequences to identify the best failure management policy for each failure mode. The article concludes with a discussion on some practical issues pertaining to RCM that lie outside the scope of SAE JA1011.

Reliability-centered maintenance (RCM) is a systematic methodology for preventing failures. This article begins by discussing the history of RCM and uses Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) all-industry standard JA1011 as its model to describe the key characteristics of an RCM process. It then expands on questions involved in RCM process, offering definitions when necessary. Next, the article describes the approach of RCM to failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA), the failure management policies available under RCM, and the criteria of RCM for deciding when a specific failure management policy is technically feasible. Then, after discussing the ways that RCM classifies failure effects in terms of consequences, it describes how RCM uses failure consequences to identify the best failure management policy for each failure mode. Next, the building blocks of RCM are put together to create a failure management program. The article ends with a discussion on some practical issues pertaining to RCM that lie outside the scope of SAE JA1011.

As a failure investigation progresses, the time arrives when the data and results of the various testing and analyses are compiled, compared, and interpreted. Data interpretation should be relatively straightforward for results that align well. However, interpretation can be challenging when results from various tests seem contradictory or inconclusive. Regardless, conclusions must eventually be drawn from the data. This article discusses the processes involved in reviewing data, formulating conclusions, failure analysis report preparation and writing, and providing recommendations and follow-up with appropriate personnel to prevent future failures.

This article describes the types of repair and presents reasons for avoiding damage to a structure or component during repair. It discusses the major standardization issues with emphasis on design, repair materials, repair techniques, and inspection.

This article focuses on the intermediate length scales, where transport phenomena govern the spatial and temporal evolution of a structure. It presents the cellular automaton (CA) and phase field (PF) methods that represent the state of the art for modeling macrostructure and microstructure. The article describes the principles of the PF method and provides information on the applications of the PF method. The CA model is introduced as a computationally efficient method to predict grain structures in castings using the mesoscopic scale of individual grains. The article discusses the coupling of the CA to macroscopic calculation of heat, flow, and mass transfers in castings and applications to realistic casting conditions.

This article presents an overview of the different types of coating and lining materials available. It provides information on the various means of surface preparation and the equipment and techniques of coating application. The article discusses the coatings industry's response to the enacted as well as proposed legislation of limiting the use of potentially harmful or toxic raw materials or surface preparation and/or application techniques. The article summarizes the existing federal regulations affecting the coatings industry categorized according to the requirements of the Environmental Protection Agency and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration as well as the corresponding Code of Federal Regulation numbers.

Modeling of structure formation in casting of alloys involves several length scales, ranging from the atomic level to macroscopic scale. Intermediate length scales are used to define the microstructure of the growing phases and the grain structure. This article discusses the principles and applications of the phase field method and the cellular automaton method for modeling the direct evolution of structure at the intermediate length scales, where transport phenomena govern the spatial and temporal evolution of the structure that involves nucleation and growth.

This article focuses on the products defined by dimensions and tolerances, made from solid materials, and fabricated by some manufacturing process. It describes three methods of cost estimations: parametric methods, empirical methods, and the complexity theory. The article presents an example to illustrate the parametric cost estimation of aircraft. An example to illustrate the cost estimation of sheet metal and riveted parts is also provided.

This article provides a summary of the concepts discussed in the Section “Corrosion in Specific Industries” in the ASM Handbook, Volume 13C:Corrosion: Environments and Industries. This Section applies the fundamental understanding of corrosion and knowledge of materials of construction to practical applications. The industries addressed are nuclear power, fossil and alternative fuel, land transportation, air transportation, microelectronics, chemical processing, pulp and paper, food and beverage, pharmaceutical and medical technology, petroleum and petrochemical, building, and mining and metal processing.

This article focuses on products defined by dimensions and tolerances and fabricated by some manufacturing process. It describes the general concepts associated with cost estimation. These include domain limitation, database commonality, cost allocation, and elements of cost. The article discusses three methods of cost estimation, namely, parametric methods, empirical methods, and complexity theory, with examples. It concludes with recommendations for cost estimation.

The goal of using nondestructive evaluation (NDE) in conjunction with failure analysis is to obtain the most comprehensive set of data in order to characterize the details of the damage and determine the factors that allowed the damage to occur. The NDE results can be used to determine optimal areas upon which to focus for sectioning and metallography in order to further investigate the condition of the component. This article provides information on the inspection method available for failure analysis, including standard methods such as visual testing, penetrant testing, and magnetic particle testing. It covers the effects of various factors on the properties of the part that may impact failure analysis, describes the characterization of damage modes and crack sizes, and finally discusses the processes involved in application of NDE results to failure analysis.

The principal task of a failure analyst during a physical-cause investigation is to identify the sequence of events involved in the failure. Technical skills and tools are required for such identification, but the analyst also needs a mental organizational framework that helps evaluate the significance of observations. This article discusses the processes involved in the characterization and identification of damage and damage mechanisms. It describes the relationships between damage causes, mechanisms, and modes with examples. In addition, some of the more prevalent and encompassing characterization approaches and categorization methods of damage mechanism are also covered.

This article describes the two critical goals in a failure investigation: damage mechanisms and damage modes. It explains the determination of primary and secondary damage mechanisms and discusses the methodology used to classify the damage mechanisms.

Soluble salts on a surface can affect a steel substrate or coating in two principal ways: corrosion acceleration and osmotic blistering. This article provides a detailed discussion on the mechanisms for each of these deleterious effects. It describes the most detrimental anions with regard to corrosion, namely, chlorides, sulfates, and nitrates, and provides information on recognition and testing of the presence of soluble salts. The salt-measurement techniques and commercially available equipment are also described. The article provides information on research regarding tolerable levels of salts beneath coatings. The information shows that there appears to be a threshold limit to the salt contamination that a given coating/coating system can tolerate in a given environment.

This article provides an overview of cost analysis in materials selection. It discusses the several categories of alternatives for cost analysis. These include rules of thumb, accounting methods, and analytical methods. The article describes the methods for evaluating materials alternatives on the basis of both direct economic costs and indirect social costs. It considers the life cycle costs of alternative body-in-white designs and life cycle analysis. The various elements of cost are introduced with a case study concerned with the manufacture, use, and disposal of the automobile body-in-white.

This article discusses the failure mechanism of springs. It describes the critical application factors that affect spring fatigue performance. These include: material type and strength; stress conditions; surface quality; manufacturing processes; rate of application of load; and embrittlement or cracking. The article summarizes the methods of statistical analysis of S-N data for general comparisons of fatigue strength of spring steels. The fatigue performance of springs is illustrated by Goodman diagrams. The article also exemplifies the examination of failed springs.

The raw materials used in thermal spray processes are a critical parameter in the finished coating because the variations in their size, morphology, chemistry, and phase composition can significantly impact coating properties. Therefore, it is important to test and characterize the raw materials. This article discusses various characterization methods for powders. Topics discussed include: methods for determining particle size and/or size distribution; powder and coating stoichiometry; particle chemistry; and phase analysis by x-ray diffraction. This article discusses the characterization of thermal spray powders which involves the determination of particle size and/or size distribution and phase analysis by x-ray diffraction. It provides information on preferential volatilization and rapid solidification that influence compositional differences. Wet chemical methods, spectographic analysis, and atomic absorption spectrometry are also discussed.

This article describes the metallurgy and process specifics of subcritical annealing, which involves heating below the lower critical temperature such that austenite does not form during subcritical annealing. It provides information on the nominal subcritical annealing temperatures of plain carbon, low-alloy and high-alloy steels and temperature-time relations of subcritical annealing. Practical implications for induction annealing and induction normalizing are included. The article concludes by describing induction softening, which softens the threaded area on carburized components such as hypoid pinion gears, to prevent the occurrence of delayed fractures from occurring.