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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006461
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
... banding, nonlinear ultrasonics have a much greater sensitivity to microstructural changes in the material ( Ref 112 ). The fundamental difference in the instrumentation required for nonlinear measurements is the high-power amplifier that is used to increase the input power to the transducer. An example...
Abstract
This article provides an overview of the characteristics of Rayleigh waves plus methods for generation and detection of waves, including using piezoelectric transducers or noncontact techniques such as lasers, electromagnetic acoustic transducers, or air-coupled ultrasonics. It reviews the methods for using Rayleigh waves for defect detection and materials characterization, alongside nonlinear ultrasonic inspection and surface acoustic wave (SAW) microscopy. The article concludes with information on the standards that use Rayleigh waves for nondestructive evaluation (NDE) of different structures.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003232
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... detailed account of the portable power sources available for magnetization, and the different ways of generating magnetic fields using yokes, coils, central conductors, prod contacts, direct-contact, and induced current. In addition, the article discusses the characteristics and classification, and...
Abstract
Magnetic-particle inspection is a nondestructive testing technique used to locate surface and subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. Beginning with an overview of the applications, advantages, and limitations of magnetic-particle inspection, this article provides a detailed account of the portable power sources available for magnetization, and the different ways of generating magnetic fields using yokes, coils, central conductors, prod contacts, direct-contact, and induced current. In addition, the article discusses the characteristics and classification, and properties of magnetic particles and suspended liquids. Finally, the article outlines the types of discontinuities (surface and subsurface) that can be identified by magnetic-particle inspection and the importance of demagnetization after inspection.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003206
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... protects it from atmospheric contamination. Alloy ingredients in the flux may be present to enhance the mechanical properties and crack resistance of the weld deposit. Figure 6 shows a typical setup for automatic SAW. A continuous electrode is fed into the joint by mechanically powered drive rolls...
Abstract
Arc welding methods can be classified into shielded metal arc welding, flux-cored arc welding, submerged arc welding, gas metal arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding, plasma arc welding, plasma-metal inert gas (MIG) welding, and electroslag and electrogas welding. This article provides information on process capabilities, principles of operation, power sources, electrodes, shielding gases, flux, process variables, and advantages and disadvantages of these arc welding methods. It presents information about the arc welding procedures of hardenable carbon and alloy steels, cast irons, stainless steels, heat-resistant alloys, aluminum alloys, copper and copper alloys, magnesium alloys, nickel alloys, and titanium and titanium alloys.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003062
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
... Abstract Ceramic materials serve important insulative, capacitive, conductive, resistive, sensor, electrooptic, and magnetic functions in a wide variety of electrical and electronic circuitry. This article focuses on various applications of advanced ceramics in both electric power and...
Abstract
Ceramic materials serve important insulative, capacitive, conductive, resistive, sensor, electrooptic, and magnetic functions in a wide variety of electrical and electronic circuitry. This article focuses on various applications of advanced ceramics in both electric power and electronics industry, namely, dielectric, piezoelectric, ferroelectric, sensing, magnetic and superconducting devices.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.9781627081801
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003245
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... sectioning hardened steels, and it is a convenient method for sectioning all steels. Abrasive-wheel sectioning produces less damage to the structure and yields a smoother surface than band sawing or power hack sawing (techniques generally limited to steels below 35 HRC). When the specimen must be removed...
Abstract
Proper sectioning of the surface to be examined is a very important step in preparing steel specimens. The first step in preventing damage to the metallurgical structure is to minimize the amount of sectioning that is done. This article discusses the various metallographic techniques, namely mounting, grinding, polishing, and etching involved in the microstructural analysis of carbon and alloy steels, case hardening steels, cast iron, ferrous powder metallurgy alloys, wrought and cast stainless steels, tool materials, steel castings, iron-chromium-nickel heat-resistant casting alloys and different product forms of steels.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003194
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... fluid separating forces; must protect mechanical and electrical systems for corrosive electrolytes, and have provisions for venting of work areas; dc power source; electrolyte system, including pumps, filters, storage tanks, and heat exchanger; electrolyte clarifier may be required; servomechanism for...
Abstract
This article is a comprehensive collection of summary charts that provide data and information that are helpful in considering and selecting applicable processes alternative to the conventional material-removal processes. Process summary charts are provided for electrochemical machining, electrical discharge machining, chemical machining, abrasive jet machining, laser beam machining, electron beam machining, ultrasonic impact grinding, hydrodynamic machining, thermochemical machining, abrasive flow machining, and electrical discharge wire cutting.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003103
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... respects: (a) a very small amount of boron (about 0.001%) has a powerful effect on hardenability; (b) the effect of boron on hardenability is much less in high-carbon than in low-carbon steels; (c) nitrogen and deoxidizers influence the effectiveness of boron; (d) high-temperature treatment reduces the...
Abstract
Hardenability is usually the single most important factor in the selection of steel for heat-treated parts. The hardenability of steel is best assessed by studying the hardening response of the steel to cooling in a standardized configuration in which a variety of cooling rates can be easily and consistently reproduced from one test to another. These include the Jominy end-quench test, the carburized hardenability test, and the surface-area-center hardenability test. This article discusses the effects of varying carbon content as well as the influence of different alloying elements on hardenability of steels. The basic information needed before a steel with adequate hardenability can be specified as the as-quenched hardness required prior to tempering to final hardness that will produce the best stress-resisting microstructure; the depth below the surface to which this hardness must extend; and the quenching medium that should be used in hardening.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003244
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... used for most electrolytic etching, and for small specimens (13 by 13 mm, or 1 2 by 1 2 in., surface to be etched), one or two standard 1 1 2 V flashlight batteries provide an adequate power source. A setup like the one shown in Fig. 13 is usually all that is required...
Abstract
This article describes the methods and equipments involved in the preparation of specimens for examination by light optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, electron microprobe analysis for microindentation hardness testing, and for quantification of microstructural parameters, either manually or by the use of image analyzers. Preparation of metallographic specimens generally requires five major operations: sectioning, mounting, grinding, chemical polishing, and etching. The article provides information on the principles of technique selection in mechanical polishing, and describes the procedures, advantages, and disadvantages of electrolytic and chemical polishing. It also provides a detailed account of procedures, precautions, and composition for preparation and handling of etchants.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004005
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... operating speeds and high-alloy die materials. Because of the high strength and work-hardening rates of the nickel alloys, the power required for cold forming may be 30 to 50% higher than that required for mild steels. Tools should be made of oil-hardening or air-hardening die steel. The air-hardening types...
Abstract
Cold extrusion is a push-through compressive forming process with the starting material (billet/slug) at room temperature. This article provides information on the different types of steels that can be cold extruded. Mechanical presses and hydraulic presses that are specifically designed for cold extrusion with high rigidity, accurate alignment, and long working strokes are described. The article details the factors that are critical in cold extrusion: punch design, die design, and tool design. It summarizes the role of lubricants during extrusion of steel, such as soap lubricant and polymer lubricants. The article describes several procedures for extruding specific steel parts such as tubular parts and stepped shafts. It lists problems such as tool breakage and galling or scoring of tools and explains cold extrusion of aluminum, copper, and nickel alloy parts. The article also discusses the impact extrusion of magnesium alloys.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003996
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... Recommended preheating forging metal temperature ranges for aluminum alloys that are commonly forged, along with recently developed alloys, are listed in Table 1 . All of these alloys are generally forged to the same severity, although some alloys may require more forging power and/or more forging operations...
Abstract
This article begins with discussion on forgeability and the factors affecting the forgeability of aluminum and aluminum alloys. It describes the types of forging methods and equipment and reviews critical elements in the overall aluminum forging process: die materials, die design, and die manufacture. The article discusses the critical aspects of various manufacturing elements of aluminum alloy forging, including the preparation of the forging stock, preheating stock, die heating, lubrication, trimming, forming and repair, cleaning, heat treatment, and inspection. It concludes with a discussion on the forging of advanced aluminum materials and aluminum alloy precision forgings.
Book: Casting
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 15
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005258
EISBN: 978-1-62708-187-0
... gaskets cut from sheets of environmentally approved insulating materials, such as Inswool, to seal and insulate both ends of the bearing when it is clamped between the support plates by hydraulic pressure. The centrifugal casting machine must be of fail-safe design in the event of a loss of power and/or...
Abstract
Horizontal centrifugal casting is used to cast parts having an axis of revolution. This article discusses the operations of various horizontal casting machines, such as flanged shaft machine, horizontal roller-type machine, and double-face plate machine. It describes the types of molds, such as expendable molds and permanent molds, used for centrifugal casting. The article also discusses the steps in casting process, namely, pouring, solidification, and babbitting. It provides information on the applications of the horizontal centrifugal casting.
Book: Casting
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 15
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005288
EISBN: 978-1-62708-187-0
... single induction-heated casting unit. The design varies depending on the application. The metal type and production rate will determine the crucible capacity and power rating. Frequency is chosen to suit these parameters and is selected from 150, 250, 500, 1000, 3000, and 10,000 Hz. The high frequencies...
Abstract
This article reviews the history and methods of copper alloy continuous casting. The methods include vertical continuous casting and horizontal continuous casting. The article discusses the upcasting methods used in vertical continuous casting and strip casting used in horizontal continuous casting. The upcasting methods include Outokumpu upcasting method, Rautomead upwards vertical casting, and pressure upcasting. The article also describes the methods and processes of wheel casting and Ohno continuous casting.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003184
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... essentially the same shapes as are forgeable from steel and other metals. For the same amount of metal flow, however, more power is required than for alloy steels such as 4340. This difference between titanium alloys and alloy steel is illustrated in Fig. 17 , which summarizes the effect of strain rate and...
Abstract
This article reviews specific processing characteristics and forging-related properties of commonly forged families of metals and alloys, including carbon and alloy steels, stainless steels, heat-resistant alloys (iron, cobalt, and nickel base alloys), aluminum alloys, copper and copper alloys, magnesium alloys, and titanium alloys. It provides forging process variables such as stock preparation, heating and cooling of forgings, die lubrication, trimming, and cleaning of these metals and alloys. The article explains the effect of temperature, deformation rate, and die temperature on forgeability and describes the forging methods of these metals and alloys.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006457
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
... condition is not classified as a defect, it is considered unacceptable if it interferes with ultrasonic inspection at the edges of the bonded joint where stresses are highest. The adhesive may be burned during drilling operations or when bonded assemblies are cut with a band saw. The burned adhesive is...
Abstract
Adhesive-bonded joints are extensively used in aircraft components and assemblies where structural integrity is critical. This article addresses the problem of how to inspect bonded assemblies so that all discrepancies are identified. It describes several inspection techniques and presents drawbacks and limitations of these techniques. Generic flaw types and flaw-producing mechanisms are listed in a table. The article discusses metal-to-metal defects, adherend defects, honeycomb sandwich defects, repair defects, and in-service defects. It reviews the methods applicable to the inspection of bonded structures, including visual inspection, ultrasonic inspection, X-ray radiography, and neutron radiography. The evaluation and correlation of inspection results are also discussed. The article concludes with information on the effects of ultrasonic wave interference in the ultrasonic inspection of adhesive-bonded joints.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006765
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
...) is used to assess the nature of the material microstructure and its influence on the failure mechanism. Development of powerful electron imaging instruments, such as the scanning electron microscope (SEM), has not diminished the importance of light microscopy. The purpose in using the LM may be...
Abstract
Metallographic examination is one of the most important procedures used by metallurgists in failure analysis. Typically, the light microscope (LM) is used to assess the nature of the material microstructure and its influence on the failure mechanism. Microstructural examination can be performed with the scanning electron microscope (SEM) over the same magnification range as the LM, but examination with the latter is more efficient. This article describes the major operations in the preparation of metallographic specimens, namely sectioning, mounting, grinding, polishing, and etching. The influence of microstructures on the failure of a material is discussed and examples of such work are given to illustrate the value of light microscopy. In addition, information on heat-treatment-related failures, fabrication-/machining-related failures, and service failures is provided, with examples created using light microscopy.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003982
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... roll particular ring types and materials can also be determined. Studies of ring rolling are ongoing in many locations, including the United States, Germany, and Japan. Due to the availability of ever-increasing computer computation power, dramatic gains have been made in the area of finite-element...
Abstract
Ring rolling is a process for creating seamless ring shaped components using specialized equipment and forming processes. This article provides information on the applications of ring rolling. It discusses the types of machines used for ring rolling, namely, vertical rolling machines, radial-axial horizontal rolling machines, four-mandrel mechanical table mills, three-mandrel table mills, and automatic radial-axial multiple-mandrel ring mills. The article provides a discussion on the process control technology and ancillary operations of ring rolling. It describes the methods of producing ring blanks and the various types of blanking and rolling tools used in ring rolling process. The article concludes with a discussion on rolled ring tolerances and machining allowances.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001300
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... variations ( Ref 14 , 28 ). The combination of selected-area diffraction with imaging makes the TEM a very powerful tool. Phase identification and morphological characteristics can be achieved on the same areas of a sample. State-of-the-art analytical TEMs can focus the beam to a spot that is only several...
Abstract
This article describes the structure of coatings produced by plasma spraying, vapor deposition, and electrodeposition processes. The main techniques used for microstructure assessment are introduced. The relationship between the microstructure and property is also discussed. The experimental techniques for microstructural characterization include metallographic technique, X-ray diffraction, electron, microscopies, and porosimetry.
Book: Fractography
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 12
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1987
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v12.a0001831
EISBN: 978-1-62708-181-8
... ( Ref 54 , 57 , 63 , 64 ). The nucleation is believed to be a strain-controlled process ( Ref 63 , 64 ), while the growth of the cavities can be described by a diffusion growth model ( Ref 65 , 66 , 67 ) and by a power-law growth relationship ( Ref 68 , 69 ). Irrespective of the growth model, as...
Abstract
This article begins with a discussion of the basic fracture modes, including dimple ruptures, cleavages, fatigue fractures, and decohesive ruptures, and of the important mechanisms involved in the fracture process. It then describes the principal effects of the external environment that significantly affect the fracture propagation rate and fracture appearance. The external environment includes hydrogen, corrosive media, low-melting metals, state of stress, strain rate, and temperature. The mechanism of stress-corrosion cracking in metals such as steels, aluminum, brass, and titanium alloys, when exposed to a corrosive environment under stress, is also reviewed. The final section of the article describes and shows fractographs that illustrate the influence of metallurgical discontinuities such as laps, seams, cold shuts, porosity, inclusions, segregation, and unfavorable grain flow in forgings and how these discontinuities affect fracture initiation, propagation, and the features of fracture surfaces.
Book: Fractography
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 12
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1987
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v12.a0001834
EISBN: 978-1-62708-181-8
... definition of fractography, defining it as the study of detail on fracture surfaces ( Ref 5 ). Zapffe's technique consisted of obtaining a coarse brittle fracture, using low-power observation to find suitable cleavage facets, using a special sample holder to orient the facet perpendicular to the optical...
Abstract
This article presents examples of the visual fracture examination that illustrate the procedure as it applies to failure analysis and quality determination. It describes the techniques and procedures for the visual and light microscopic examination of fracture surfaces with illustrations. The article also describes microscopic and macroscopic features of the different fracture mechanisms with illustrations with emphasis on visual and light microscopy examination. The types of fractures considered include ductile fractures, tensile-test fractures, brittle fractures, fatigue fractures, and high-temperature fractures.