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plasma density
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Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0007039
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... density plasma nitriding sputtering titanium alloys IONIZED GASES offer unique opportunities for various surface treatments, including nitriding ( Ref 1 , 2 ). Sputtering is a phenomenon accompanying the plasma/ion nitriding process, which uses glow discharge ( Ref 1 – 9 ) and is caused by ions...
Abstract
Sputtering is a nonthermal vaporization process in which atoms are ejected from the surface of a solid by momentum transfer from energetic particles of atomic or molecular size. Ionized gases in plasma nitriding chambers often possess enough energy to sputter atoms from workload, fixturing, and racking surfaces that are then redeposited to the benefit or detriment of the nitriding process. This article explains how and why sputtering occurs during plasma nitriding and how to recognize and control its effects. It reviews the factors that influence the intensity of sputtering and its effects, whether positive or negative, on treated parts. It also provides recommendations for improving outcomes when nitriding titanium alloys, ferrous metals, particularly stainless steels, and components with complex geometries.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001291
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
...). These macroparticles result from the extreme localized heating of the cathode, which is due to the high current densities that are found in cold cathode arcs (10 4 to 10 8 A/cm 2 ). Unless the macroparticles can be removed from the plasma stream, they become lodged in the coating and are usually considered...
Abstract
This article describes the characteristics of continuous cathodic arc sources and filtering process for removing macroparticles from a cathodic arc. It provides information on the types of arc sources and the properties of deposited materials. The advantages, limitations, and applications of arc deposition are also discussed.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001289
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... where the gas density is low and the mean free path for collision is very long. In vacuum-barrel deposition processing, this means that the pressure is lower than about 1.3 mPa (1 × 10 −5 torr). A plasma is a low-pressure gas that contains enough ions and electrons to have an appreciable electrical...
Abstract
This article begins with a list of the factors that influence the properties of physical vapor deposited films. It describes the steps involved in ion plating, namely, surface preparation, nucleation, interface formation, and film growth. The article discusses the factors influencing the properties of ion-plated films. The sources of potential applied on substrate surface, bombarding species, and depositing species are addressed. The article also provides information on the parameters that influence bombardment. It concludes with a discussion on the advantages, limitations, and applications of ion plating.
Book: Casting
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 15
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005205
EISBN: 978-1-62708-187-0
... within a plasma torch. Most plasma generators (plasma torches) for melting processes use an electric arc to produce gaseous discharges. The characteristics of an electric arc include relatively high current densities, low cathode fall, and high luminosity of the column. A typical potential distribution...
Abstract
Plasma melting is a material-processing technique in which the heat of thermal plasma is used to melt a material. This article discusses two typical design principles of plasma torches in the transferred mode: the tungsten tip design and the hollow copper electrode design. It describes the sources of atmospheric contamination in plasma melting furnaces and their control measures. The equipment used in plasma melting furnaces are also discussed. The article provides a detailed discussion on various plasma melting processes, such as plasma consolidation, plasma arc remelting, plasma cold hearth melting, and plasma casting.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2013
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04a.a0005793
EISBN: 978-1-62708-165-8
... carburizing furnace with some extra effort. The furnace must be isolated electrically from the heating and the batch, which will be connected to the plasma generator. The generator applies a voltage of approximately 600 V between the batch and the grounded furnace. It results in a current density in the range...
Abstract
The plasma carburizing process is basically a low-pressure carburizing process making use of a high-voltage electrical field applied between the load to be treated and the furnace wall producing activated and ionized gas species responsible for carbon transfer to the workpieces. This article begins with an overview of the theoretical background and the range and limitations of glow-discharge plasma. It describes the plasma carburizing process, which is carried out with methane or propane. Plasma carburizing processes of sinter metals and stainless steels, and the influence of current pulse length on carbon input of low-pressure carburizing process are also described. The article presents the basic requirements and process parameters to be considered in plasma carburizing equipment. It also exemplifies a still-working plasma process in industrial measure.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2013
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04a.a0005791
EISBN: 978-1-62708-165-8
...-cathode effect), which places limits on the density of parts in a workload and the nitriding of deep, small-diameter holes High energy consumption to heat the part from just plasma heating Fig. 4 Uniform case from plasma nitriding. Source: Ref 10 Fig. 5 Hot-walled plasma nitriding...
Abstract
Plasma (ion) nitriding is a method of surface hardening using glow-discharge technology to introduce nascent (elemental) nitrogen to the surface of a metal part for subsequent diffusion into the material. This article describes the procedures and applications of plasma nitriding methods of steel. These methods include direct-current plasma nitriding, pulsed-current plasma nitriding, and active-screen plasma nitriding. The article reviews cold-walled and hot-walled furnaces used for plasma nitriding. It provides information on the importance of controlling three process parameters: atmosphere, pressure, and part temperature. The article includes a discussion on the influence of nitrogen concentration on case structure formation on nitrided steel, and explains the significance of microstructure, hardness, and fatigue strength on nitrided case. It also discusses processing, laboratory studies, and applications of nitrocarburizing of steel.
Book: Thermal Spray Technology
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2013
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05a.a0005719
EISBN: 978-1-62708-171-9
... in measuring individual and collective particle velocities, temperature, and trajectories as well as other plume characteristics for the plasma spray process. particle morphology powder feeder process control equipment thermal spray equipment thermal spray plume sensors SUPPORT EQUIPMENT...
Abstract
This article discusses various control processes carried out in powder feeding, thermal spraying, and gas flow of the thermal spray process to standardize the coating quality. Quality of the entire powder feeding process can be achieved by controlling the processing of feeding equipment as well as the characteristics of the powder being fed. Gas flow control can be achieved by using rotameters, critical orifices, and thermal mass flowmeters, whose ability to provide useful information is defined by their resolution, accuracy, linearity, and repeatability. The commercial thermal spray controls discussed here include the open-loop input-based, open-loop output-based, closed-loop input-based, and closed-loop output-based or adaptive controls. The article discusses the common causes and practical solutions for arc starting problems. It also outlines certain important developments in measuring individual and collective particle velocities, temperature, and trajectories as well as other plume characteristics for the plasma spray process.
Image
Published: 01 December 2008
Fig. 1 Typical potential distribution along a plasma arc. V a , anode voltage; V c , cathode voltage; d a , anode current density; d c , cathode current density
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Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001288
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... the cathode and anode electrodes in the presence of a sufficient gas density (approximately 10 to 500 μbar). Under a sufficiently large electric potential, the gas atoms between the electrodes become ionized and diffuse through the plasma. However, only the ions in the near-cathode region will “feel...
Abstract
Sputtering is a nonthermal vaporization process in which the surface atoms are physically ejected from a surface by momentum transfer from an energetic bombarding species of atomic/molecular size. It uses a glow discharge or an ion beam to generate a flux of ions incident on the target surface. This article provides an overview of the advantages and limitations of sputter deposition. It focuses on the most common sputtering techniques, namely, diode sputtering, radio-frequency sputtering, triode sputtering, magnetron sputtering, and unbalanced magnetron sputtering. The article discusses the fundamentals of plasma formation and the interactions on the target surface. A comparison of reactive and nonreactive sputtering is also provided. The article concludes with a discussion on the several methods of process control and the applications of sputtered films.
Book: Thermal Spray Technology
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2013
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05a.a0005718
EISBN: 978-1-62708-171-9
... to increase particle velocity. The corresponding increase in kinetic energy increases coating density and coating adhesion. However, because particle heat transfer is a function f dwell time in the gas stream, lower average particle temperatures, compared to plasma spray, reduce the degree of particle melting...
Abstract
This article presents the major thermal spray processes and their subsets, presenting each of the commercially significant processes together with some of their important variations. Each process is presented along with the attributes that influence coating structure and performance. The article summarizes the essential equipment components and necessary controls. The various thermal spray processes are conventional flame spray, detonation gun, high-velocity oxyfuel spray, electric arc spray, and plasma arc spray. Other processes, such as cold spray, underwater plasma arc spray, and extended-arc and other high-energy plasma arc spray, are also considered.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003057
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
.... Chemical analysis is carried out by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, atomic absorption spectrophotometry, and plasma-emission spectrophotometry. Phase analysis is done by X-ray diffraction, spectroscopic methods, thermal analysis, and quantitative analysis. Techniques used for microstructural analysis...
Abstract
This article describes testing and characterization methods of ceramics for chemical analysis, phase analysis, microstructural analysis, macroscopic property characterization, strength and proof testing, thermophysical property testing, and nondestructive evaluation techniques. Chemical analysis is carried out by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, atomic absorption spectrophotometry, and plasma-emission spectrophotometry. Phase analysis is done by X-ray diffraction, spectroscopic methods, thermal analysis, and quantitative analysis. Techniques used for microstructural analysis include reflected light microscopy using polarized light, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, energy dispersive analysis of X-rays, and wavelength dispersive analysis of X-rays. Macroscopic property characterization involves measurement of porosity, density, and surface area. The article describes testing methods such as room and high-temperature strength test methods, proof testing, fracture toughness measurement, and hardness and wear testing. It also explains methods for determining thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, heat capacity, and emissivity of ceramics and glass and measurement of these properties as a function of temperature.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 6
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1993
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v06.a0001340
EISBN: 978-1-62708-173-3
.../oxidation potential, surface tension, gas purity, and gas density. It describes the characteristics of the components of a shielding gas blend. The article discusses the selection of shielding gas for gas-metal arc welding (GMAW), gas-tungsten arc welding (GTAW), and plasma arc welding (PAW), as well...
Abstract
The shielding gas used in a welding process has a significant influence on the overall performance of the welding system. This article discusses the basic properties of a shielding gas in terms of ionization potential, thermal conductivity, dissociation and recombination, reactivity/oxidation potential, surface tension, gas purity, and gas density. It describes the characteristics of the components of a shielding gas blend. The article discusses the selection of shielding gas for gas-metal arc welding (GMAW), gas-tungsten arc welding (GTAW), and plasma arc welding (PAW), as well as the influence of shielding gas on weld mechanical properties. It concludes with a discussion on flux-cored arc welding.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 2A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 November 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v02a.a0006502
EISBN: 978-1-62708-207-5
... for single pass Plasma arc 10 3 to 10 6 6 × 10 3 to 6 × 10 6 5–10 Shallow at low-energy end. Deep penetration at high-energy end Laser beam 10 5 to 10 7 6 × 10 5 to 6 × 10 7 15–25 Shallow at low-energy density range. Deep penetration at high-energy density range Electron beam 10 5...
Abstract
Most welding lasers fall into the category of fiber, disc, or direct diode, all of which can be delivered by fiber optic. This article provides a comparison of the energy consumptions and efficiencies of laser beam welding (LBW) with other major welding processes. It discusses the two modes of laser welding: conduction-mode welding and deep-penetration mode welding. The article reviews the factors of process selection and procedure development for laser welding. The factors include power density, interaction time, laser beam power, laser beam diameter, laser beam spatial distribution, absorptivity, traverse speed, laser welding efficiency, and plasma suppression and shielding gas. The article concludes with a discussion on laser cutting, laser roll welding, and hybrid laser welding.
Book: Thermal Spray Technology
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2013
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05a.a0005713
EISBN: 978-1-62708-171-9
... and by the use of higher arc voltages. Gas flows have concurrently increased, with plasma guns evolving from subsonic to supersonic gas-exit speeds. Subsequent increases in particle speeds have increased coating densities and bond strengths. Another major plasma spray development was that of low-pressure...
Abstract
Significant expansion of thermal spray technology occurred with the invention of plasma spray, detonation gun, and high-velocity oxyfuel (HVOF) deposition technologies. This article provides a brief history of the major initiating inventions/developments of thermal spray processes. It provides information on feedstock materials developed for specific thermal spray processes.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 6A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 October 2011
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v06a.a0005641
EISBN: 978-1-62708-174-0
... and plasma beam interaction, such as refraction. Position of focus with respect to the substrate and depth of focus of the beam also affect the power density and penetration depth. Spatial distribution of the energy is generally constant for a given laser, whereas absorptivity is a function...
Abstract
This article provides an overview of the fundamentals, mechanisms, process physics, advantages, and limitations of laser beam welding. It describes the independent and dependent process variables in view of their role in procedure development and process selection. The article includes information on independent process variables such as incident laser beam power and diameter, laser beam spatial distribution, traverse speed, shielding gas, depth of focus and focal position, weld design, and gap size. Dependent variables, including depth of penetration, microstructure and mechanical properties of laser-welded joints, and weld pool geometry, are discussed. The article also reviews the various injuries and electrical and chemical hazards associated with laser beam welding.
Image
Published: 01 December 2008
Fig. 6 Relationship among raw material feeding rate, ingot bulk density, and specific power consumption in the plasma consolidation of titanium. Source: Ref 1
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Image
Published: 31 October 2011
Fig. 15 Schematic illustration of the (a) melt-in or conduction versus (b) keyhole modes in high-energy-density welding processes, including plasma arc welding, electron beam welding, and laser beam welding. Source: Ref 2
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Book: Thermal Spray Technology
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2013
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05a.a0005736
EISBN: 978-1-62708-171-9
..., there has been much advancement in thermal spray material development, understanding of the process-microstructure property, and in-process diagnostics, leading to better process control ( Ref 2 , 3 ). The advent of new processes such as solution/suspension plasma spraying and vacuum plasma spray processes...
Abstract
Thermal spray processes involve complete or partial melting of a feedstock material in a high-temperature flame, and propelling and depositing the material as a coating on a substrate. This article describes the properties of sprayed electronic materials, including dielectrics, conductors, and resistors, and discusses their implications and associated limitations for device applications and potential remedial measures. The article presents specific examples of electrical/electronic device applications, including electromagnetic interference/radio-frequency interference shielding, planar microwave devices, waveguide devices, sensing devices, solid oxide fuel cells, heating elements, electrodes for capacitors and other electrochemical devices.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 6
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1993
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v06.a0001445
EISBN: 978-1-62708-173-3
... affecting the ultimate power density driving the welding process are absorptivity and plasma-beam interaction, such as refraction. Position of focus with respect to the substrate and depth of focus of the beam also affects the power density and penetration depth. Spatial distribution of the energy...
Abstract
Laser-beam welding (LBW) is a joining process that produces coalescence of material with the heat obtained from the application of a concentrated coherent light beam impinging upon the surface to be welded. This article describes the steps that must be considered when selecting the LBW process. It reviews the individual process variables that influence procedure development of the LBW process. Joint design and special practices related to LBW are discussed. The article concludes with a discussion on the use of consumables and special welding practices.
Image
Published: 30 September 2015
Fig. 3 Examples of atomized powders. (a) Water-atomized copper. (b) Water-atomized iron, apparent density 2.9 g/cm 3 . (c) Air-atomized aluminum. (d) Helium-atomized aluminum. (e) Nitrogen-atomized high-speed steel. (f) Vacuum-atomized IN-100 superalloy. (g) Plasma rotating electrode process
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