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Published: 15 December 2019
Book Chapter
Optical Testing and Characterization
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006937
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... Abstract Optical testing of plastics includes the characterization of materials and the analysis of optical components. If a material is tested for transmission, haze, yellowness, and refractive index, the knowledge of its optical properties is nearly complete. For optical components, surface...
Abstract
Optical testing of plastics includes the characterization of materials and the analysis of optical components. If a material is tested for transmission, haze, yellowness, and refractive index, the knowledge of its optical properties is nearly complete. For optical components, surface irregularity, birefringence, and internal contamination must also be considered. These characteristics are a function of the material and the fabrication method. Gloss and color also are affected by the base material and measured as optical properties.
Book Chapter
Optical Testing of Polymers
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003027
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
... Abstract Optical testing of plastics includes characterization of materials and analysis of optical components. This article focuses on procedures for testing various characteristics of optical components, including transmission and haze, yellowness, refractive index, birefringence, as well...
Abstract
Optical testing of plastics includes characterization of materials and analysis of optical components. This article focuses on procedures for testing various characteristics of optical components, including transmission and haze, yellowness, refractive index, birefringence, as well as surface irregularity, contamination, gloss, and color. It provides a short note on ad hoc testing, which is beneficial for practical applications in which lenses, prisms, and light pipes are being used and tested, as other test instruments are often not available.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1990
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v02.a0001086
EISBN: 978-1-62708-162-7
... Abstract Beryllium is a metal with an unusual combination of physical and mechanical properties that make it particularly effective in optical components, precision instruments, and specialized aerospace applications. Almost all of the beryllium in use is a powder metallurgy (P/M) product...
Abstract
Beryllium is a metal with an unusual combination of physical and mechanical properties that make it particularly effective in optical components, precision instruments, and specialized aerospace applications. Almost all of the beryllium in use is a powder metallurgy (P/M) product. Beginning with an overview of the mining and refining processes of beryllium, this article discusses powder production and consolidation methods, beryllium grades and their designations, and the protective measures that have been enacted to reduce exposure to beryllium.
Book Chapter
Beryllium
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003165
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... conductivity (210 W/m · K, or 121 Btu/ft · h · F). Unalloyed beryllium is used in weapons, spacecraft, rocket nozzles, structural tubing, optical components, and precision instruments. The specific modulus, that is, the ratio of elastic modulus to density, is higher than that of aluminum, magnesium...
Abstract
Beryllium possesses an unusual combination of physical and mechanical properties, suiting it for specialized applications where its relatively high cost can be justified. It has very low density, a moderately high melting point, high elastic modulus, and good electrical and thermal conductivity. The article describes structural, instrument, and optical grade beryllium and the corresponding compositional ranges. It also discusses processing and product forms as well as factors affecting corrosion resistance. The article concludes with a short note on health and safety considerations when handling beryllium.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 9
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2004
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v09.a0003754
EISBN: 978-1-62708-177-1
... Abstract This article provides information on the basic components of a light microscope, including the illumination system, collector lens, and optical and mechanical components. It describes optical performance in terms of image aberrations, resolution, and depth of field. The article...
Abstract
This article provides information on the basic components of a light microscope, including the illumination system, collector lens, and optical and mechanical components. It describes optical performance in terms of image aberrations, resolution, and depth of field. The article discusses the examination of specimen surfaces using polarized light, phase contrast, oblique illumination, dark-field illumination, bright-field illumination, interference-contrast illumination, and phase contrast illumination. Special techniques and devices that may be used with the optical microscope, to obtain additional information, are also described. The article concludes with information on photomicroscopy and macrophotography.
Book Chapter
In-Line Process Monitoring of Powder-Bed Fusion and Directed-Energy Deposition Processes
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 24
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 June 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v24.a0006564
EISBN: 978-1-62708-290-7
... and noisy images that are sensitive to small variations in the surface topology. Figure 1 illustrates the shadowing and specular reflection effects for an optical system with a camera viewing a component at an angle normal to the build surface and a light source at a small angle to the surface. The light...
Abstract
This article covers in-line process monitoring of the metal additive manufacturing (AM) methods of laser and electron beam (e-beam) powder-bed fusion (PBF) and directed-energy deposition (DED). It focuses on methods that monitor the component directly throughout the build process. This article is organized by the type of AM process and by the physics of the monitoring method. The discussion covers two types of monitoring possible with the PBF process: monitoring the area of the powder bed and component and monitoring the melt pool created by the laser or e-beam. Methods for layer monitoring include optical and thermal methods that monitor light reflected or emitted in the visible and infrared wavelengths, respectively. Monitoring methods for laser directed-energy deposition (DED) discussed are those that measure the size and shape of the melt pool, the temperature of the melt pool, and the plasma generated by the laser as it interacts with the molten metal.
Book Chapter
General Characteristics and Applications of Ceramics and Glasses
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003049
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
..., and/or environment. Examples of specific applications are electronic sensors, optical elements, magnetic devices, tribological components, and structural components. Most ceramics that have technical or engineering applications are used as a polycrystalline form of the material. That is, they consist...
Abstract
This article provides an overview of the types, properties, and applications of traditional and advanced ceramics and glasses. Principal product areas for traditional ceramics include whitewares, glazes, porcelain enamels, structural clay products, cements, and refractories. Advanced ceramics include electronic ceramics, optical ceramics, magnetic ceramics, and structural ceramics.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006677
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... the essential components, and explains their function only to the extent that it helps the operator obtain the desired results. An explanation of how the components of ion optical column shape and steer the ion beam to the desired target locations is then provided. The article also reviews the many diverse...
Abstract
This article is intended to provide the reader with a good understanding of the underlying science, technology, and the most common applications of focused ion beam (FIB) instruments. It begins with a survey of the various types of FIB instruments and their configurations, discusses the essential components, and explains their function only to the extent that it helps the operator obtain the desired results. An explanation of how the components of ion optical column shape and steer the ion beam to the desired target locations is then provided. The article also reviews the many diverse accessories and options that enable the instrument to realize its full potential across all of the varied applications. This is followed by a detailed analysis of the physical processes associated with the ion beam interacting with the sample. Finally, a complete survey of the most prominent FIB applications is presented.
Book Chapter
Defects in Metal Additive Manufacturing Processes
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 24
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 June 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v24.a0006557
EISBN: 978-1-62708-290-7
... treatment, and postprocessing HIP to eliminate defects detrimental to properties from the as-built condition. The use of noncontact thermal, optical, and ultrasound techniques for inspecting AM components are also considered. The final section summarizes the knowledge gap in our understanding of the defects...
Abstract
The formation of defects within additive-manufactured (AM) components is a major concern for critical structural and cyclic load applications. Thus, understanding the mechanisms of defect formation in fusion-based processes is important for prescribing the appropriate process parameters specific to the alloy system and selected processing technique. This article discusses the formation of defects within metal additive manufacturing, namely fusion-based processes and solid-state/sintering processes. Defects observed in fusion-based processes include lack of fusion, keyhole collapse, gas porosity, solidification cracking, solid-state cracking, and surface-connected porosity. The types of defects in solid-state/sintering processes are sintering porosity and improper binder burnout. The article also discusses defect-mitigation strategies, such as postprocess machining, surface treatment, and postprocessing HIP to eliminate defects detrimental to properties from the as-built condition. The use of noncontact thermal, optical, and ultrasound techniques for inspecting AM components are also considered. The final section summarizes the knowledge gap in our understanding of the defects observed within AM components.
Book Chapter
Principles of Induction Hardening and Inspection
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4C
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 09 June 2014
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04c.a0005863
EISBN: 978-1-62708-167-2
... Abstract Induction hardening of steel components is the most common application of induction heat treatment of steel. This article provides a detailed account of electromagnetic and thermal aspects of metallurgy of induction hardening of steels. It describes induction hardening techniques...
Abstract
Induction hardening of steel components is the most common application of induction heat treatment of steel. This article provides a detailed account of electromagnetic and thermal aspects of metallurgy of induction hardening of steels. It describes induction hardening techniques, namely, scan hardening, progressive hardening, single-shot hardening, and static hardening. The article discusses the techniques used to control the heat pattern, and provides a brief review of quenching techniques used in the induction hardening. It provides guidelines for selecting the frequency and power for induction hardening, and describes common methods for measuring case depth, such as optical and microhardness, and surface hardness. It provides information on some complications and ambiguities associated with these measurements. The article also discusses the commonly used non-destructive testing methods, namely, magnetic particle testing, ultrasonic testing, and eddy current testing to evaluate induction-hardened components.
Book Chapter
Visual Examination and Photography in Failure Analysis
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006763
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... can be marked to record the location and condition of each of the macrophotographs taken. Further analysis may require sectioning for microstructural examination. Optical metallographic photography is used to document the microstructure and internal structural conditions of a failed component...
Abstract
Failure analysis is an investigative process that uses visual observations of features present on a failed component fracture surface combined with component and environmental conditions to determine the root cause of a failure. The primary means of recording the conditions and features observed during a failure analysis investigation is photography. Failure analysis photographic imaging is a combination of both science and art; experience and proper imaging techniques are required to produce an accurate and meaningful fracture surface photograph. This article reviews photographic principles and techniques as applied to failure analysis, both in the field and in the laboratory. The discussion covers the processes involved in field and laboratory photographic documentations, provides a description of professional digital cameras, and gives information on photographic lighting and microscopic photography. Special techniques can be employed to deal with highly reflective conditions and are also described in this article.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003527
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... component sectioning and metallography. Optical metallographic photography is used to document the microstructure and internal structural condition of a failed component. Component failure simulation testing, if performed, should be photographically documented in a manner similar to the documentation...
Abstract
This article reviews photographic principles, namely, visual examination, field photographic documentation, and laboratory photographic documentation, as applied to failure analysis and the specific techniques employed in both the field and laboratory. It provides information on the photographic equipment used in failure analysis and on film and digital photography. The article describes the basics of photography and the uses of different types of lighting in photography of a fractured surface. The article also addresses the techniques involved in macrophotography and microscopic photography as well as other special techniques.
Book Chapter
Visual Examination and Photography in Failure Analysis
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006851
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... fiber optic top lighting Fluorescent Lighting Fluorescent lighting produces a more diffused illumination when photographing reflective fracture surfaces and provides excellent overall documentation of the component’s condition. A typical arrangement of single-side fluorescent lighting is shown...
Abstract
Failure analysis is an investigative process in which the visual observations of features present on a failed component and the surrounding environment are essential in determining the root cause of a failure. This article reviews the basic photographic principles and techniques that are applied to failure analysis, both in the field and in the laboratory. It discusses the processes involved in visual examination, field photographic documentation, and laboratory photographic documentation of failed components. The article describes the operating principles of each part of a professional digital camera. It covers basic photographic principles and manipulation of settings that assist in producing high-quality images. The need for accurate photographic documentation in failure analysis is also presented.
Book Chapter
Detection and Monitoring of Fatigue Cracks
Available to PurchaseBook: Fatigue and Fracture
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 19
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1996
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v19.a0002363
EISBN: 978-1-62708-193-1
... Abstract This article describes the test techniques that are available for monitoring crack initiation and crack growth and for obtaining information on fatigue damage in test specimens. These techniques include optical methods, the compliance method, electric potential measurement, and gel...
Abstract
This article describes the test techniques that are available for monitoring crack initiation and crack growth and for obtaining information on fatigue damage in test specimens. These techniques include optical methods, the compliance method, electric potential measurement, and gel electrode imaging methods. The article discusses the magnetic techniques that are primarily used as inspection techniques for detecting fatigue cracks in structural components. It details the principles and operation procedures of the liquid penetrant methods, positron annihilation techniques, acoustic emission techniques, ultrasonic methods, eddy current techniques, infrared techniques, exoelectron methods, and gamma radiography. The article explains the microscopy methods used to determine fatigue crack initiation and propagation. These include electron microscopy, scanning tunneling microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and scanning acoustic microscopy. The article also reviews the X-ray diffraction technique used for determining the compositional changes, strain changes, and residual stress evaluation during the fatigue process.
Book Chapter
Introduction and Overview of Titanium and Titanium Alloys
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003140
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... Abstract Titanium and its alloys are used in various applications owing to its high strength, stiffness, good toughness, low density, and good corrosion resistance. This article discusses the applications of titanium and titanium alloys in gas turbine engine components, aerospace pressure...
Abstract
Titanium and its alloys are used in various applications owing to its high strength, stiffness, good toughness, low density, and good corrosion resistance. This article discusses the applications of titanium and titanium alloys in gas turbine engine components, aerospace pressure vessels, optic-system support structures, prosthetic devices, and applications requiring corrosion resistance and high strength. It explains the effects of alloying elements in titanium alloys as they play an important role in controlling the microstructure and properties and describes the secondary phases and martensitic transformations formed in titanium alloy systems. Information on commercial and semicommercial grades and alloys of titanium is tabulated. The article also discusses the different grades of titanium alloys such as alpha, near-alpha alloys, alpha-beta alloys, beta alloys, and advanced titanium alloys (titanium-matrix composites and titanium aluminides).
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003086
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... Abstract Material properties are the link between the basic structure and composition of the material and the service performance of a part or component. This article describes the most significant properties that must be considered when choosing a metal for a given application, namely physical...
Abstract
Material properties are the link between the basic structure and composition of the material and the service performance of a part or component. This article describes the most significant properties that must be considered when choosing a metal for a given application, namely physical properties (mass characteristics and thermal, electrical, magnetic, radiation, and optical properties), chemical properties (corrosion and oxidation resistance) and mechanical properties (tensile and yield strength, elongation, toughness, hardness, creep, and fatigue). The article also contains tables that list room-temperature physical properties, vapor pressures, and mechanical properties for various metals.
Book: Powder Metallurgy
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 7
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 September 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v07.a0006102
EISBN: 978-1-62708-175-7
... changes of a powder and a component. Particle image analysis can be easily performed with optical macro- and microscopes. A macroscope is used to analyze particle shape and morphologies with typical magnifications from 1 to 10×, while a microscope is used to analyze particle cross sections...
Abstract
Particle image analysis of metal powders can be easily performed with optical macroscopes and microscopes. This article provides examples of the particle image analysis on powders used in the powder metallurgy industry.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006824
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... Abstract This article focuses on common failures of the components associated with the flow path of industrial gas turbines. Examples of steam turbine blade failures are also discussed, because these components share some similarities with gas turbine blading. Some of the analytical methods...
Abstract
This article focuses on common failures of the components associated with the flow path of industrial gas turbines. Examples of steam turbine blade failures are also discussed, because these components share some similarities with gas turbine blading. Some of the analytical methods used in the laboratory portion of the failure investigation are mentioned in the failure examples. The topics covered are creep, localized overheating, thermal-mechanical fatigue, high-cycle fatigue, fretting wear, erosive wear, high-temperature oxidation, hot corrosion, liquid metal embrittlement, and manufacturing and repair deficiencies.
Book Chapter
Laser Beam Delivery Optics and Manufacturing Economics
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 6A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 October 2011
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v06a.a0005630
EISBN: 978-1-62708-174-0
.... The cleanliness of the beam path is critical to the propagation of the laser beam and to the life of the optical surfaces. The beam-delivery system and component supplier will specify the quality and volume of the purge gas. With a telescoping beam path, the purge supply volume must be such that it anticipates...
Abstract
Properly designed beam-delivery optics is essential to quality of the beam acting on the workpiece and to the economics of the manufacturing process. This article describes the design considerations of laser beam delivery optics. It also reviews the manufacturing economics and presents two case studies of typical economic environments found in laser welding applications.
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