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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006667
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... Abstract This article provides a brief introduction to neutron diffraction as well as its state-of-the-art capabilities. The discussion covers the general principles of the neutron, neutron-scattering theory, generation of neutrons, types of incident radiation, and purposes of single-crystal...
Abstract
This article provides a brief introduction to neutron diffraction as well as its state-of-the-art capabilities. The discussion covers the general principles of the neutron, neutron-scattering theory, generation of neutrons, types of incident radiation, and purposes of single-crystal neutron diffraction, powder diffraction, and pair distribution function analysis. The relationship between detector space and reciprocal space are presented. Various factors involved in sample preparation, calibration, and techniques used for analyzing diffraction data are described. The article also presents application examples and possible future developments in neutron diffraction.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006678
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... emission spectroscopy, high-temperature combustion, and inert gas fusion. This is followed by a section on techniques for determining the atomic structure of crystals, namely X-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction, and electron diffraction. Types of electron microscopies most commonly used for...
Abstract
This article briefly discusses popular techniques for metals characterization. It begins with a description of the most common techniques for determining chemical composition of metals, namely X-ray fluorescence, optical emission spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, high-temperature combustion, and inert gas fusion. This is followed by a section on techniques for determining the atomic structure of crystals, namely X-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction, and electron diffraction. Types of electron microscopies most commonly used for microstructural analysis of metals, such as scanning electron microscopy, electron probe microanalysis, and transmission electron microscopy, are then reviewed. The article contains tables listing analytical methods used for characterization of metals and alloys and surface analysis techniques. It ends by discussing the objective of metallography.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003251
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... primary types of analyses and their uses are described in the following sections, along with information about the threshold sensitivity and precision, limitations, sample requirements, and capabilities of related techniques. Neutron diffraction residual stress measurement is based on the same...
Abstract
X-ray diffraction (XRD) is the most extensively used method for identifying and characterizing various aspects of metals related to the arrangements and spacings of their atoms for bulk structural analysis. XRD techniques are also applicable to ceramics, geologic materials, and most inorganic chemical compounds. This article describes the operating principles and types of XRD analyses, along with information about the threshold sensitivity and precision, limitations, sample requirements, and capabilities of related techniques. The necessary instrumentation for XRD analyses include the Debye-Scherrer camera and the X-ray diffractometer. The article also describes the uses of XRD analyses, such as the identification of phases or compounds in metals and ceramics; detection of order and disorder transformation; determination of lattice parameters and changes in lattice parameters due to alloying and temperature effects; measurement of residual stresses; characterization of crystallite size and perfection; characterization of preferred orientations; and determination of single crystal orientations.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006632
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... and neutron diffraction methods calculate the residual stress from the elastic strain measured in the crystal lattice without altering the part. Mechanical methods calculate the residual stress from the change in strain relaxed (or dimensional change) caused by sectioning, slitting, drilling, or...
Abstract
This article provides a detailed account of x-ray diffraction (XRD) residual-stress techniques. It begins by describing the principles of XRD stress measurement, followed by a discussion on the most common methods of XRD residual-stress measurement. Some of the procedures required for XRD residual-stress measurement are then presented. The article provides information on measurement of subsurface stress gradients and stress relaxation caused by layer removal. The article concludes with a section on examples of applications of XRD residual-stress measurement that are typical of industrial metallurgical, process development, and failure analysis investigations undertaken at Lambda Research.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006643
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... some information may be obtained on amorphous solids and liquids using the pair distribution function method or complementary techniques (see the articles “Small-Angle X-Ray and Neutron Scattering” and “Micro X-Ray Diffraction” in this Division). Similar or complementary information often can be...
Abstract
This article describes the methods of X-ray diffraction analysis, the types of information that can be obtained, and its interpretation. The discussion covers the basic theories of X-rays and various types of diffraction experiments, namely single-crystal methods for polychromatic and monochromatic beams, powder diffraction methods, and the Rietveld method.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006654
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... determinations, unless complementary neutron diffraction data also are available. Fig. 9 Electron density map of oxalic acid based on high-resolution single-crystal diffraction data. The C–C bonding electrons (blue arrow) and the oxygen lone pair (green arrows) are clearly resolved. With...
Abstract
This article discusses the techniques and applications of synchrotron x-ray diffraction, providing information on x-ray generation, monochromation, and crystallography. X-ray diffraction techniques covered include single-crystal and powder diffraction. Some of the factors involved in the construction and development of macromolecular x-ray crystallography are also described.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006680
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
...-rays to penetrate. Using laboratory x-rays, metallic samples typically must be less than 0.1 mm (0.004 in.) thick. The use of synchrotron radiation or neutrons can overcome this limitation. Figure 2 shows a back-reflection pinhole camera. If white radiation is used, the camera is usually referred...
Abstract
X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) techniques are used to characterize samples in the form of loose powders, aggregates of finely divided material or polycrystalline specimens. This article provides a detailed account of XRPD. It begins with a discussion on XRPD instrumentation and the techniques used to characterize samples. The article then describes the principles, advantages, and disadvantages of various types of powder diffractometers. A section on the Rietveld method of diffraction analysis is then presented. The article discusses various methods and procedures for qualifying and quantifying phase mixtures in powder samples. It provides information on typical sensitivity and experimental limits on precision of XRPD analysis and other systematic sources of errors that affect accuracy. Some of the factors pertinent to the estimation of crystallite size and defects are also presented. The article ends with a few application examples of XRPD.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003057
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
.... Diffraction is the coherent scattering of electromagnetic waves (e.g., light or x-rays) or moving subatomic particles (e.g., electrons or neutrons) by materials containing structural units with sizes similar to the wavelengths of the impinging radiation. Crystalline solids are regular periodic structures made...
Abstract
This article describes testing and characterization methods of ceramics for chemical analysis, phase analysis, microstructural analysis, macroscopic property characterization, strength and proof testing, thermophysical property testing, and nondestructive evaluation techniques. Chemical analysis is carried out by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, atomic absorption spectrophotometry, and plasma-emission spectrophotometry. Phase analysis is done by X-ray diffraction, spectroscopic methods, thermal analysis, and quantitative analysis. Techniques used for microstructural analysis include reflected light microscopy using polarized light, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, energy dispersive analysis of X-rays, and wavelength dispersive analysis of X-rays. Macroscopic property characterization involves measurement of porosity, density, and surface area. The article describes testing methods such as room and high-temperature strength test methods, proof testing, fracture toughness measurement, and hardness and wear testing. It also explains methods for determining thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, heat capacity, and emissivity of ceramics and glass and measurement of these properties as a function of temperature.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4E
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04e.a0006252
EISBN: 978-1-62708-169-6
... the compliance technique also indicates subsurface tensile-stress magnitudes >200 MPa, while surface compressive stresses were approximately 160 MPa (23 ksi) ( Ref 36 ). Neutron diffraction measurements have the great benefit of being very penetrating and nondestructive (although a residual-stress...
Abstract
The presence of macroscopic residual stresses in heat treatable aluminum alloys can give rise to machining distortion, dimensional instability, and increased susceptibility to in-service fatigue and stress-corrosion cracking. This article details the residual-stress magnitudes and distributions introduced into aluminum alloys by thermal operations associated with heat treatment. The available technologies by which residual stresses in aluminum alloys can be relieved are also described. The article shows why thermal stress relief is not a feasible stress-reduction technology for precipitation-hardened alloys. It examines the consequences of aging treatments on the residual stress, namely, annealing, precipitation heat treatment, and cryogenic treatment. The article provides information on uphill quenching, which attempts to reverse thermal gradients encountered during quenching. It examines how quench-induced residual stresses in heat treatable aluminum alloys are reduced when sufficient load is applied to cause plastic deformation. The article also shows how plastic deformation reduces residual stress.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001238
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... , 56 Hardness Microhardness 58 Superficial hardness 4 Ultrasonic signal 4 Residual stresses Barkhausen noise analysis 4 , 24 Eddy current Hole drilling 59 , 60 , 61 Interferometry 62 Layer removal 27 , 30 , 42 Neutron diffraction 26 , 63...
Abstract
The concept of surface integrity for grinding operations can be extended to encompass six different groups of key factors: visual, dimensional, residual stress, tribological, metallurgical, and others. This article discusses the importance of these factors in the performance and behavior of finishing methods in various manufactured parts. Special emphasis is given to residual stresses and their influence on the final mechanical properties of a manufactured part.
Book Chapter
Book: Alloy Phase Diagrams
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 27 April 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v03.a0006166
EISBN: 978-1-62708-163-4
... … … … NdH x 0.7 to ? cF 12 Fm 3 m CaF 2 Nd 2 H 5 (b) (c) ∼1.6 tI 28 tI40 I 4 1 md I41md … … (a) High-temperature phase; exists between 680 and 880 °C. (b) Not shown in the phase diagram. (c) Ideal stoichiometry; structure based on neutron-diffraction studies on...
Abstract
This article is a compilation of binary alloy phase diagrams for which hydrogen (H) is the first named element in the binary pair. The diagrams are presented with element compositions in weight percent. The atomic percent compositions are given in a secondary scale. For each binary system, a table of crystallographic data is provided that includes the composition, Pearson symbol, space group, and prototype for each phase.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 22A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2009
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v22a.a0005418
EISBN: 978-1-62708-196-2
..., but conventional elastoplasticity is treated as the flow rule ( Ref 8 ). It is common practice to use such a model when studying the operative deformation mechanisms during the elastic-plastic transition and the intergranluar strains that arise, measured by neutron or synchrotron x-ray diffraction...
Abstract
Self-consistent models are a particular class of models in continuum micromechanics, that is, the field concerned with making predictions of the properties and evolution of aggregates whose single-crystal deformation behavior is known. This article provides information on the measurement and representation of textures as well as prediction of texture evolution in single-phase materials and two-phase aggregates.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006670
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... lie at the end of a continuum, where the density of defects becomes so high the material no longer exhibits the long-range structural order required to produce discrete features in x-ray, electron, or neutron diffraction. Organic semiconductors essentially lie between the amorphous and polycrystalline...
Abstract
This article introduces various techniques commonly used in the characterization of semiconductors, namely single-crystal, polycrystalline, amorphous, oxide, organic, and low-dimensional semiconductors and semiconductor devices. The discussion covers material classification, fabrication methods, sample preparation, bulk/elemental characterization methods, microstructural characterization methods, surface characterization methods, and electronic characterization methods.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.9781627082136
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006671
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... chemical analysis methods that may reveal specific bonding information useful for indicating phases can also be used. The most common analytical tool for phase identification is crystal diffraction, which employs x-rays, high-energy electrons, or neutrons that undergo wave interference with the...
Abstract
The characterization, testing, and nondestructive evaluation of ceramics and glasses are vital to manufacturing control, property improvement, failure prevention, and quality assurance. This article provides a broad overview of characterization methods and their relationship to property control, both in the production and use of ceramics and glasses. Important aspects covered include the means for characterizing ceramics and glasses, the corresponding rationale behind them, and relationship of chemistry, phases, and microconstituents to engineering properties. The article also describes the effects that the structure of raw ceramic materials and green products and processing parameters have on the ultimate structure and properties of the processed piece. The effects that trace chemistry and processing parameters have on glass properties are discussed. The article describes mechanical tests and failure analysis techniques used for ceramics.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003998
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... (extrusion axis perpendicular to the plane of the page). (a) Basal (00.2) plane normals oriented perpendicular to extrusion axis. (b) ⟨10.0⟩ directions parallel to the extrusion axis. (c) ⟨10.1⟩ directions parallel to the extrusion axis. Data obtained by neutron diffraction at the Los Alamos Neutron Science...
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 22A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2009
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v22a.a0005424
EISBN: 978-1-62708-196-2
... confidence in the fidelity of simulation. This is true both when new methods are under development and when new applications emerge. Experiments involving in situ loading of specimens in facilities capable of x-ray and neutron diffraction measurements provide data at the scale of crystals. Elastic (lattice...
Abstract
This article provides an explanation on how crystal plasticity is implemented within finite element formulations by the use of physical length scales: crystal scale and continuum scale. It provides theoretical formulations for kinematic framework for deforming crystals and polycrystals, elastic and plastic behaviors of single crystals, refinements to the single-crystal constitutive, and crystal-scale finite-element. The article also presents examples that illustrate the capabilities of the formulations at the length scales.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1986
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.9781627081788
EISBN: 978-1-62708-178-8
Book: Casting
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 15
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005213
EISBN: 978-1-62708-187-0
.... Observations from x-ray, neutron diffraction, and sound velocity measurements on liquid binary iron-carbon alloys at temperatures approximately 20 °C (35 °F) above the liquidus indicate that for up to 1.8% C, the distance between nearest iron neighbors, r I , as well as the number of nearest neighbors, N I...
Abstract
Cast iron exhibits a considerable amount of eutectic in the solid state. This article discusses the structure of liquid iron-carbon alloys to understand the mechanism of the solidification of cast iron. It illustrates nucleation of the austenite-flake graphite eutectic, austenite-spheroidal graphite eutectic, and austenite-iron carbide eutectic. The article provides a discussion on primary austenite and primary graphite. Depending on the carbon equivalent, the primary phase in cast iron can be either austenite for hypoeutectic cast iron or graphite for hypereutectic cast iron. The article also describes the growth of eutectic in cast iron in terms of isothermal solidification, directional solidification, and multidirectional solidification.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006652
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... chromatography/mass spectrometry; LEISS, low-energy ion-scattering spectroscopy; MFS, molecular fluorescence spectroscopy; NAA, neutron activation analysis; NMR, nuclear magnetic resonance; OM, optical metallography; RS, Raman spectroscopy; SAXS, small-angle x-ray scattering; SEM, scanning electron microscopy...