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Book Chapter
Permanent Magnet Materials
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003154
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
.... This article discusses the composition, properties, and applications of permanent magnetic materials, such as hysteresis alloys used in motors. It primarily focuses on the stability of magnetic fields that influences reversible and irreversible losses in magnetization with time, and the choice of magnet...
Abstract
Premanent magnet refers to solid materials that have sufficiently high resistance to demagnetizing fields and sufficiently high magnetic flux output to provide useful and stable magnetic fields. Permanent magnet materials include a variety of alloys, intermetallics, and ceramics. This article discusses the composition, properties, and applications of permanent magnetic materials, such as hysteresis alloys used in motors. It primarily focuses on the stability of magnetic fields that influences reversible and irreversible losses in magnetization with time, and the choice of magnet material, component shape and magnetic circuit arrangement.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1990
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v02.a0001109
EISBN: 978-1-62708-162-7
...-energy balance favors the normal state. Stability of the superconducting state in magnetic fields up to the upper critical magnetic field ( H c2 ) allows type II materials to be exploited for high-magnetic-field applications. Fig. 6 The magnetic flux line lattice predicted by Abrikosov for type...
Abstract
Superconductivity has been found in a wide range of materials, including pure metals, alloys, compounds, oxides, and organic materials. Providing information on the basic principles, this article discusses the theoretical background, types of superconductors, and critical parameters of superconductivity. It discusses the magnetic properties of selected superconductors and types of stabilization, including cryogenic stability, adiabatic stability, and dynamic stability. The article also focuses on alternating current losses in superconductors, including hysteresis loss, penetration loss, eddy current loss, and radio frequency loss. Furthermore, the article describes the flux pinning phenomenon and Josephson effects.
Book Chapter
Superconducting Materials
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003155
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... Abstract Superconductors are materials that exhibit a complete disappearance of electrical resistivity on lowering the temperature below the critical temperature. A superconducting material must exhibit perfect diamagnetism, that is, the complete exclusion of an applied magnetic field from...
Abstract
Superconductors are materials that exhibit a complete disappearance of electrical resistivity on lowering the temperature below the critical temperature. A superconducting material must exhibit perfect diamagnetism, that is, the complete exclusion of an applied magnetic field from the bulk of the superconductor. Superconducting materials that have received the most attention are niobium-titanium superconductors (the most widely used superconductor), A15 compounds (in which class the important ordered intermetallic Nb3Sn lies), ternary molybdenum chalcogenides (Chevrel phases), and high-temperature ceramic superconductors. This article provides an overview of basic principles of superconductors and the different classes of superconducting materials and their general characteristics.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1990
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v02.a0001110
EISBN: 978-1-62708-162-7
... on the impurities. Resistance-at-field dictates the volume of stabilizer required to achieve a given stability criterion. Magnetoresistance Magnetoresistance is the relative increase in resistivity of a metal in the presence of an external magnetic field. Copper tends to obey Kohler's rule, unlike most high...
Abstract
Niobium-titanium alloys (NbTi) became the superconductors of choice in the early 1960s, providing a viable alternative to the A-15 compounds and less ductile alloys of niobium-zirconium. This can be attributed to the relative ease of fabrication, better electrical properties, and greater compatibility with copper stabilizing materials. This article discusses the ramifications of design requirements, selection criteria and processing methods of superconducting fibers and matrix materials. It provides information on the various steps involved in the fabrication of superconducting composites, including assembly, welding, isostatic compaction, extrusion, wire drawing, twisting, and final sizing. The article also provides a detailed account of the properties and applications of NbTi superconducting composites.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1990
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v02.a0001094
EISBN: 978-1-62708-162-7
... nominal compositions permanent magnet materials physical properties PERMANENT MAGNET is the term used to describe solid materials that have sufficiently high resistance to demagnetizing fields and sufficiently high magnetic flux output to provide useful and stable magnetic fields. Permanent magnets...
Abstract
This article discusses the chief magnetic characteristics of permanent magnet materials. It provides a detailed description on nominal compositions; principal magnet designations; magnetic, physical, and mechanical properties; selection criteria; and applications of the permanent magnet materials, which include magnet steels, magnet alloys, alnico alloys, platinum-cobalt alloys, cobalt and rare-earth alloys, hard ferrites, iron-chromium-cobalt alloys, and neodymium-iron-boron alloys.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1990
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v02.a0001111
EISBN: 978-1-62708-162-7
... unity). Why this transformation occurs only in V 3 Si and Nb 3 Sn is unknown ( Ref 2 ). The cubic structure can be stabilized by the addition of small amounts of impurities. The intermetallic compound is inherently brittle and presents unique handling problems when forming superconducting magnets...
Abstract
This article reviews the phase diagrams, alloy with third element additions, layer growth, critical current density, and matrix materials of A15 superconductors. It describes the production methods of tape conductors (chloride deposition, and surface diffusion) and multifilamentary wires (rod process, modified jelly roll process, niobium tube process, in-situ process, powder metallurgy process, and jelly roll method). The article focuses on reaction heat treatment, which is required at the end of wire processing to convert the ductile components to the desired, but brittle, superconductor. Finally, it discusses the applications of A15 superconductors in commercial magnets, power generation, power transmission, high-energy physics, and fusion.
Book Chapter
Magnetic Materials and Properties for Powder Metallurgy Part Applications
Available to PurchaseBook: Powder Metallurgy
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 7
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 September 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v07.a0006057
EISBN: 978-1-62708-175-7
... components. The powder is magnetically aligned, pressed, and sintered to obtain powder compacts with maximum magnetization. Soft magnetics based on iron and stainless steel powders and rare earth permanent magnets are discussed in this article. Basic Magnetism In simple terms, magnetism is a field...
Abstract
Powder metallurgy (PM) techniques are effective in making magnetically soft components for use in magnetic part applications. This article provides an account of the factors affecting magnetism, permeability, and hysteresis losses. It includes information on the magnetic properties of PM materials that are used in the magnetic part applications, namely, pure iron, phosphorus irons, ferritic stainless steels, 50 nickel-50 iron, and silicon irons. The article describes the factors that affect and optimize magnetic properties. It contains a table that lists the magnetic properties possible in metal injection molding parts. The article also discusses ferromagnetic cores used in alternating current applications and some permanent magnets, such as rare earth-cobalt magnets and neodymium-iron-boron (neo) magnets.
Book Chapter
Magnetically Soft Materials
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003153
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... are characterized by retaining a large amount of residual magnetism after exposure to a strong magnetic field. These materials typically have coercive force, H c , values of several hundred to several thousand oersteds (Oe), and are considered to be permanent magnets. The coercive force is a measure...
Abstract
This article discusses the ferromagnetic properties of soft magnetic materials, explaining the effects of impurities, alloying elements, heat treatment, grain size, and grain orientation on soft magnetic materials. It describes the types of soft magnetic materials, which include high-purity iron, low-carbon irons, silicon (electrical) steels, nickel-iron alloys, iron-cobalt alloys, ferritic stainless steels, amorphous metals, and ferrites (ceramics). Finally, the article provides a short note on alloys for magnetic temperature compensation.
Book Chapter
Methods, Tools, and Software for Physical Process Analysis and Design
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4C
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 09 June 2014
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04c.a0005876
EISBN: 978-1-62708-167-2
... on the solution of Maxwell's equations (MEs) and provides some basic information regarding the heat transfer and fluid equations, because these physical phenomena usually are strongly coupled to magnetic and electric fields. The solutions are usually obtained by using specific numerical methods such as finite...
Abstract
Designing of induction heating, or, generally electro technological installations, requires mathematical modeling for solving problems related to various physical phenomena, including electromagnetic (EM), thermal, mechanical, fluidic, and metallurgical fields. This article focuses on the solution of Maxwell's equations (MEs) and provides some basic information regarding the heat transfer and fluid equations, because these physical phenomena usually are strongly coupled to magnetic and electric fields. The solutions are usually obtained by using specific numerical methods such as finite-element method, finite difference method, boundary-element method or volume-integral method, and direct-solution method. The article also discusses the typical structure of commercial codes (preprocessor, solver, and postprocessor) to solve field problems mainly in finite-element method.
Book Chapter
High-Temperature Superconductors for Wires and Tapes
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1990
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v02.a0001114
EISBN: 978-1-62708-162-7
... room-temperature (RT) approaches. The incorporation of superconducting wire or tape into large magnets and power generators, for example, provides the ability to transport large dc currents with no measurable resistive losses. High magnetic fields can thus be produced at a significantly reduced cost...
Abstract
The discovery of the high-critical-temperature oxide superconductors has accelerated the interest for superconducting applications due to its higher-temperature operation at liquid nitrogen or above and thus reduces the refrigeration and liquid helium requirement. It also permits usage of the high-critical-temperature oxides in magnets or power applications in high-current-carrying wire or tape with acceptable mechanical capability. This article discusses the powder techniques mainly based on the production of an oxide powder precursor, which is then subjected to various processing, including powder-in-tube processing, vapor deposition processing, and melt processing. It further discusses the microstructural, anisotropy and weak link influences on these processes.
Book Chapter
Electrical/Electronic Applications for Advanced Ceramics
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003062
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
... Abstract Ceramic materials serve important insulative, capacitive, conductive, resistive, sensor, electrooptic, and magnetic functions in a wide variety of electrical and electronic circuitry. This article focuses on various applications of advanced ceramics in both electric power...
Abstract
Ceramic materials serve important insulative, capacitive, conductive, resistive, sensor, electrooptic, and magnetic functions in a wide variety of electrical and electronic circuitry. This article focuses on various applications of advanced ceramics in both electric power and electronics industry, namely, dielectric, piezoelectric, ferroelectric, sensing, magnetic and superconducting devices.
Book Chapter
Electron Spin Resonance
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1986
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0001750
EISBN: 978-1-62708-178-8
... sometimes be ordered magnetic solids, such as ferromagnets. If placed in a microwave-resonant cavity between the pole pieces of a strong electromagnet, such a sample absorbs microwave energy at particular values of the magnetic field that are characteristic of the positions and the crystalline environments...
Abstract
Electron spin resonance (ESR), or electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), is an analytical technique that can extract a great deal of information from any material containing unpaired electrons. This article explains how ESR works and where it applies in materials characterization. It describes a typical ESR spectrometer and explains how to tune it to optimize critical electromagnetic interactions in the test sample. It also identifies compounds and elements most suited for ESR analysis and explains how to extract supplementary information from test samples based on the time it takes electrons to return to equilibrium from their resonant state. Two of the most common methods for measuring this relaxation time are presented as are several application examples.
Book Chapter
Power Sources for Welding
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 6
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1993
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v06.a0001337
EISBN: 978-1-62708-173-3
... ). A spinning rotor winding is charged with direct current obtained from the exciter and applied through slip rings, creating a rotating magnetic field. No commutator is required. The rotating field cuts through a surrounding stator assembly, the windings of which collectively produce alternating current...
Abstract
Power sources are apparatuses that are used to supply current and voltages that are suitable for particular welding processes. This article describes power sources for arc welding, resistance welding, and electron-beam welding. The more-common welding processes that use constant-current and constant-voltage power sources are listed in a table. The article describes the open-circuit voltage characteristics and power source control methods. The control methods employ either pulse width modulation (PWM) or frequency modulation (FM).
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1990
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v02.a0005549
EISBN: 978-1-62708-162-7
... Bd total external permeance Ci curie thickness of the conductor (Bfld)max maximum magnetic energy CINDAS Center for Information and Qo flux line lattice spacing product Numerical Data Analysis and A area Bj internal field; intrinsic induction Synthesis (Bj)p saturation induction CIP cold isostatic...
Book Chapter
Properties Needed for Electronic and Magnetic Applications
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 20
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1997
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v20.a0002475
EISBN: 978-1-62708-194-8
... forces caused by any applied or stray magnetic fields ( Ref 4 ). The electronic and magnetic applications cover a very wide span of generating and processing information: from placing a telephone call (in a house, on the road, in an airplane) to watching TV from the air, cable, or satellite, to using...
Abstract
This article presents an overview of the electric and magnetic parameters and discusses the significance of these parameters for electronic applications. It describes the components of analog and digital electronic circuits. The article reviews the augmenting technologies: magnetic and special technologies such as electrooptical.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1986
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0001751
EISBN: 978-1-62708-178-8
... spectroscopy Overview Introduction Ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) describes resonant absorption of electromagnetic (usually microwave) radiation in a magnetic material containing strongly exchange coupled electrons; absorption is measured as a function of an applied magnetic field. In this sense, FMR...
Abstract
Ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) is used in the identification of the magnetic state of materials, the quantitative determination of static magnetic parameters, and the determination of microwave losses. This article describes the theory of ferromagnetic resonance and provides information on reflection spectrometers, microwave spectrometers, and ferromagnetic anti-resonance spectrometers used for measuring FMR. It also discusses the applications of FMR and provides several detailed examples.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1990
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v02.a0001093
EISBN: 978-1-62708-162-7
... are characterized by retaining a large amount of residual magnetism after exposure to a strong magnetic field. These materials typically have coercive force, H c , values of several hundred to several thousand oersteds (Oe) and are considered to be permanent magnets. The coercive force is a measure...
Abstract
Magnetically soft materials are characterized by their low coercivity, an essential requirement for irons and steels selected for any application involving electromagnetic induction cycling. This article provides information on ferromagnetic material properties and how they are affected by impurities, alloying additions, heat treatment, residual stress, and grain size. It also describes classification and testing methods for magnetically soft materials such as high-purity iron, low-carbon steels, silicon steels, iron-aluminum alloys, nickel-iron alloys, iron-cobalt alloys, ferrites, and stainless steels. The article also addresses corrosion resistance and provides insights on the selection of alloys for power generation applications, including motors, generators, and transformers. A short note on the design and fabrication of magnetic cores is also included.
Book Chapter
Nondestructive Inspection of Steel Bar, Wire, and Billets
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006467
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
... the surface. The magnetic-particle method uses a magnetic field set up in the bar. Flaws cause a leakage of flux if they are at an angle to the flux flow. This flux is due to the lower magnetic permeability of the material in the flaw (air, oxide, or dirt) compared with that of the metal. Because the flux...
Abstract
This article focuses on nondestructive inspection of steel bars. The primary objective in the nondestructive inspection of steel bars and wire is to detect conditions in the material that may be detrimental to the satisfactory end use of the product. The article discusses various types of flaws encountered in the inspection of steel bars, including porosity, inclusions, scabs, cracks, seams, and laps. Inspection methods, such as magnetic-particle inspection. liquid penetrant inspection, ultrasonic inspection, and electromagnetic inspection, of steel bars are also described. The article provides a discussion on electromagnetic systems, eddy-current systems, and magnetic permeability systems for detection of flaws on steel bars. It concludes with a description of nondestructive inspection of steel billets.
Book Chapter
Rare Earth Metals
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1990
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v02.a0001089
EISBN: 978-1-62708-162-7
... properties. The magnetic moments of the 3 d electrons of cobalt and the 4 f electrons of samarium couple parallel to each other (which further increases the magnetic strength), but because the 4 f moments in the hexagonal crystalline environment are difficult to rotate in an applied magnetic field...
Abstract
Rare earth metals belong to Group IIIA of the periodic table that includes scandium, yttrium, and the lanthanide elements which are lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, and lutetium. This article classifies the rare earth metals based on their purity level, which are designated as research grades (>99.8% pure) and commercial grades (95% - 98% pure), and describes the preparation and purification, including solid-state electrolysis. It further discusses physical, mechanical, and chemical properties; electronic configurations; crystal structures, and explains the alloy forming characteristics of rare earth elements. The article concludes by describing the various applications of commercial-grade rare earth elements and commercial alloys, which incorporates rare earth elements as additives.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006931
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... spectroscopy is the measure of absorbed energy required for nuclei to change their magnetic spin orientation while aligned in an applied magnetic field. Proton NMR is widely used, and typical field strengths are 1.41 and 51.48 T (14,100 and 51,400 gauss), with corresponding absorption of radiation...
Abstract
This article presents tools, techniques, and procedures that engineers and material scientists can use to investigate plastic part failures. It also provides a brief survey of polymer systems and the key properties that need to be measured during failure analysis. It describes the characterization of plastics by infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, differential thermal analysis, thermogravimetric analysis, thermomechanical analysis, and dynamic mechanical analysis. The article also discusses the use of X-ray diffraction for analyzing crystal phases and structures in solid materials.
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