This article presents typical problems encountered in the analysis of experimental creep and creep-rupture data and the possible solutions to these drawbacks. It provides information on planning the test and creep strain/time relationships. The exponential creep equation and the rational polynomial creep equation are discussed. The article also describes the dependence of stress and temperature on equation parameters and explains the lot-centered regression analysis.

This article discusses statistical concepts that form the basis of most of the following articles on specific areas of applied statistics and data analysis. It reviews some of the basic concepts that must be understood to successfully apply the statistical procedures, including probability, random variables, degrees of freedom, confidence limits and intervals, and reliability. Descriptive statistics, measures of central tendency, confidence limits and intervals, and degrees of freedom are also discussed.

Bend tests are conducted to determine the ductility or strength of a material. This article discusses the different bend tests with emphasis on test methods, apparatuses, procedures, specimen preparation, and interpretation and reporting of results. The types of bend tests discussed are bending ductility tests, bending strength tests (ASTM E 855), bend tests as per EN 12384 and JIS 3130, and computer-aided bending tests. The three standard bending strength tests are the cantilever beam bend test, the three-point bend test, and the four-point bend test. European Standard EN 12384 specifies a bend test to determine the modulus of elasticity in bending. Japanese Industrial Standard JIS 3130 specifies two tests to determine the elastic limit of spring plate or strip: the repeated deflection spring test and the moment type spring test.

This article is a detailed account of optical emission spectroscopy (OES) for elemental analysis. It begins with a discussion on the historical background of OES and development trends in OES methods. This is followed by a description of the general principles and optical systems of OES, along with various types of emission sources commonly used for OES. Some of the processes involved in calibration and quantification of OES for direct solids analysis by the ratio method are then described. The article ends with a discussion on the applications of each type of emission sources.

This article reviews the planning of fatigue experiments, including the structure of a test plan, randomization, and nuisance variables. The statistical characterization of the S/N (stress/life) or e/N (strain/life) response of a single material tested under a single condition is discussed. The techniques for defining a mean fatigue curve and evaluating scatter or variability about that mean are explained. The article presents the standard techniques for statistical characterization of the fatigue strength or fatigue limit of a single material by use of the Probit method, the up-and-down (staircase) method, and two-point procedures. Stress-level selection methods are also presented. The article discusses the comparison of the fatigue behavior of two or more materials for data generated at a single stress or strain level. Treatments to compare data generated over a range of stress or strain levels are included. The article also summarizes the consolidation of fatigue data generated at different conditions.

Several factors contribute to marine-atmospheric corrosion with the local environment being the single most important factor. Therefore, assessing a local environment, which is essential to reduce the gross expenditure, is assisted by modeling of the local environment and by a set of corrosion standards proposed by the International Standards Organization (ISO). This article focuses on the important variables associated with atmospheric corrosion in marine atmospheres, namely, moisture, temperature, winds, airborne contaminants, alloy content, location, and biological organisms along with their corresponding assessing methods. It also examines the ISO CORRAG program for modeling the corrosion rate of atmospheric corrosion that is represented as equations modeling.

This article describes design factors for products used in engineering applications. The article groups these factors into three categories: functional requirements, analysis of total life cycle, and other major factors. These categories intersect and overlap, constituting a major challenge in engineering design. Performance specifications, risk and hazard analysis, design process, design for manufacture and assembly, design for quality, reliability in design, and redesign are considered for functional requirements. Life-cycle analysis considers raw-material extraction from the earth and product manufacture, use, recycling (including design for recycling), and disposal. The other major factors considered include evaluation of the current state of the art for a given design, designing to codes and standards, and human factors/ergonomics.

Inspection involves two types of testing, namely, destructive and non-destructive. This article provides an overview of the various inspection plans, such as first-article inspection and periodic tests done by destructive metallurgical testing and the final inspection done by the application of non-destructive technology. It describes the processes involved in destructive methods, such as surface hardness measurement, induction hardening pattern and heat-affected zone inspection, and the examination of microstructure before and after induction hardening. It also discusses non-destructive evaluation techniques for defect detection and microstructure characterization as well as non-destructive evaluation for real-time monitoring of induction process.

This article discusses the methods for assessing creep-rupture properties, particularly, nonclassical creep behavior. The determination of creep-rupture behavior under the conditions of intended service requires extrapolation and/or interpolation of raw data. The article describes the various techniques employed for data handling of most materials and applications of engineering interest. These techniques include graphical methods, methods using time-temperature parameters, and methods used for estimations when data are sparse or hard to obtain. The article reviews the estimation of required creep-rupture properties based on insufficient data. Methods for evaluation of remaining creep-rupture life, including parametric modeling, isostress testing, accelerated creep testing, evaluation by the Monkman-Grant coordinates, and the Materials Properties Council (MPC) Omega method, are also reviewed.

The heat treatment of steel involves a number of processes (such as stress relieving, normalizing, annealing etc) to condition the microstructure and obtain desired properties. This article discusses typical heat treating process control procedures for carbon and low-alloy steels, as well as the importance of time, and temperature control in heat treatment. Temperature Uniformity Survey, a testing procedure intended to map variations in temperature throughout the furnace work zone, helps in precise control of temperature. The article focuses on the measuring instruments used to determine gas pressure, vacuum level, gas flow, and gas composition. It focuses on their measuring quenchant characteristics, including bulk temperature, viscosity, composition, and cooling efficiency. The article describes the procedures for detecting variability in the incoming product. It presents, through an example, the general application of design of experiments techniques to locate and tune vital process parameters. The devices used in the control process of mechanical components are also reviewed.

Weathering steels contain deliberate additions of alloying elements intended to increase the atmospheric corrosion resistance of steel. This article provides an overview of atmospheric corrosion testing. It describes the estimation of the atmospheric corrosion behavior of weathering steels by two methods such as short-term exposure tests and calculation of a corrosion index based on the steel composition. The article highlights some generalities about corrosion mechanisms. Based on the mechanism of atmospheric corrosion resistance of weathering steel, working rules for creating the protective oxide film have evolved. The article also provides case histories that illustrate both the violations of these rules and suggestions on how to avoid certain maintenance problems that may be encountered with weathering steels.

This article provides an overview of common quenching media, the factors involved in the mechanism of quenching, and process variables, namely, surface condition, mass and section size of the workpiece, and flow rate of the quenching liquid. It describes the methods of quenchant characterization using hardening-power and cooling-power tests. The article discusses the fundamentals involved in heat-transfer coefficient and heat flux of quenching processes. This discussion is followed by various actual examples of applications of these methods using simplified equations. Quenchant evaluation, classification, selection, and maintenance are reviewed in detail. The article addresses the various reasons for quench oil variability and complications due to aging and contamination.

Both nondestructive testing (NDT) and nondestructive evaluation (NDE) use noninvasive measurement techniques to gain information about defects and various properties of materials, components, and structures. This article begins with a discussion on the historical development of quantitative measurement techniques, evaluation reliability, and quantitative interpretation of nondestructive inspection methods. The common nondestructive evaluation methods, along with their uses and limitations, are summarized in a table. The article conceptually illustrates the interplay of NDE and fracture mechanics in the damage tolerant approach. It concludes with information on pressure vessel applications that can be separated into three protocols used by military nuclear power, commercial nuclear power, and non-nuclear pressure vessels and/or fired boilers.

Castability of alloys is a measure of their ability to be cast to a given shape with a given process without the formation of cracks/tears, pores/shrinkage, and/or other significant casting defects. This article discusses the factors which affect the fluidity of an iron melt: alloy composition and initial melt condition. Besides the basic alloy properties, the effective castability of high-alloy irons can be significantly improved through casting and casting system design. The article describes the product design and processing factors of high-alloy graphitic irons and high-alloy white irons. It explains the heat treatment of high-silicon irons for high-temperature service and concludes with a discussion on machining and finishing of high-alloy iron castings.

Fatigue failures may occur in components subjected to fluctuating (time-dependent) loading as a result of progressive localized permanent damage described by the stages of crack initiation, cyclic crack propagation, and subsequent final fracture after a given number of load fluctuations. This article begins with an overview of fatigue properties and design life. This is followed by a description of the two approaches to fatigue, namely infinite-life criterion and finite-life criterion, along with information on damage tolerance criterion. The article then discusses the characteristics of fatigue fractures followed by a discussion on the effects of loading and stress distribution, and material condition on the microstructure of the material. In addition, general prevention and characteristics of corrosion fatigue, contact fatigue, and thermal fatigue are also presented.

This article provides a detailed discussion on heat treatment of titanium alloys such as alpha alloys, alpha-beta alloys, and beta and near-beta alloys. Common processes include stress-relief, annealing, solution treating, aging, quenching, and age hardening. It provides information on the effects of alloying elements on alpha/beta transformation. The article also discusses the heat treating procedures, and the furnaces used for heat treating titanium and titanium alloys.

Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) is used to eliminate porosity in castings. This article provides a history and an overview of the HIP system. It illustrates the reasons for using HIP and discusses the criteria for selecting HIP process parameters. The main mechanisms by which pores are eliminated during HIP are reviewed. The article describes the effect of HIP on the mechanical properties, shape, and structure of castings as well as the effect of inclusions on as-HIPed properties. It examines the problems encountered in HIP and their solution. The article concludes with information on the economics of HIP processing.