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human-machine systems
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Published: 01 January 1997
Fig. 2 Schematic representation of a human-machine system showing basic elements and modes of function. Source: Ref 3
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Image
Published: 01 January 1997
Fig. 1 Schematic representation of basic functions performed by human or machine components of human-machine systems. Source: Ref 2
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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 20
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1997
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v20.a0002437
EISBN: 978-1-62708-194-8
... that are considered for an acceptable level of human performance. These include the state or condition of the human being; the activity, including equipment and required tools; and the context in which the activity is performed. acceptable level equipment tools human factors human-machine systems product...
Abstract
The central approach of human factors engineering is the systemic application of relevant information about human characteristics and behavior to the design of human-made objects, facilities, and environments that people use. This article focuses on the elements that are considered for an acceptable level of human performance. These include the state or condition of the human being; the activity, including equipment and required tools; and the context in which the activity is performed.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006439
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
...Abstract Abstract Machine vision, also referred to as computer vision or intelligent vision, is a means of simulating the image recognition and analysis capabilities of the human eye and brain system with digital techniques. The machine vision functionality is extremely useful in inspection...
Abstract
Machine vision, also referred to as computer vision or intelligent vision, is a means of simulating the image recognition and analysis capabilities of the human eye and brain system with digital techniques. The machine vision functionality is extremely useful in inspection, supervision, and quality control applications. This article presents a variety of machine vision functions for different purposes and provides a comparison of machine and human vision capabilities in a table. It discusses the processes of a machine vision system: image acquisition, image preprocessing, image analysis, and image interpretation. The article provides information on the uses of machine vision systems in three categories of manufacturing applications: visual inspection, identification of parts, and guidance and control applications.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 20
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1997
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v20.a0002439
EISBN: 978-1-62708-194-8
...-priority consideration in the design process. In many ways a human's capability can exceed that of a machine. The human can adjust to unusual situations; the machine cannot. The human can decide to go over, under, or around an obstacle, and do it; the machine cannot. In an emergency situation...
Abstract
Any threat to personal safety should be regarded as a hazard and treated as such. This article discusses threats from several sources, such as kinematic/mechanical hazards, electrical hazards, energy hazards, human factors/ergonomic hazards, and environmental hazards. It describes hazard analysis in terms of failure modes and effects analysis, failure modes and criticality analysis, fault tree analysis, fault hazard analysis, and operating hazards analysis. The article examines fail-safe designs, such as fail-passive designs, fail-active designs, and fail-operational designs. It also provides information on various types of warnings, such as visual warning, auditory warnings, olfactory warnings, tactile warnings, and tastable warnings.
Book: Machining
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 16
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1989
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v16.a0002149
EISBN: 978-1-62708-188-7
... of the machining process was primarily done by sight, sound, and touch of the human operator. In time, production demands grew. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, more efficient machines and cutting materials were introduced into the workplace. The development of heat-resistant cutting tools...
Abstract
In-process tool monitoring systems can electronically detect excessive tool wear or warn of impending tool failure to lessen machine downtime and prevent the production of out-of-tolerance parts. This article discusses the sensing technology available for manufacturing applications, as wells as the advantages and disadvantages of this technology. It describes the roles of the three basic elements to any modern sensing system: sensing source, signal amplifier, and microprocessor or translator. The article reviews two case studies from two different ends of the metal removal spectrum, broaching and drilling, to emphasize the cost effectiveness of using a tool condition monitoring system.
Book: Casting
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 15
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005292
EISBN: 978-1-62708-187-0
... consistency and repeatability improvement: The die casting process is very dynamic. More than 20 factors will affect the process simultaneously. For a human to monitor and control all of these factors is beyond the normal operator's capability. Computer monitoring and control systems can monitor more than 20...
Abstract
High-pressure die casting is a fast method for the net shape manufacturing of parts from nonferrous alloys. This article reviews the automation technologies for the different stages or steps of the process. These steps include liquid metal pouring, injection, solidification, die open, part extraction, die lubrication, insert loading, and die close. Some manual aspects of the operations, together with automation options, are discussed. The article describes finishing steps, such as finish trimming, detailed deflashing, shot blast cleaning, and quality checks. Automation of the postcasting process is also discussed.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 18
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2017
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v18.a0006400
EISBN: 978-1-62708-192-4
... increased productivity), extended machine life, and lower operating costs. For example, because corrosion can lead to unexpected failures that can be costly in terms of repair expenses, environmental damage, and potential harm to humans, CM is indispensable in avoiding these consequences. Generally...
Abstract
This article introduces the concept of condition monitoring (CM) and summarizes various techniques used for CM across the industrial sectors. The techniques include visual inspection, performance monitoring, vibration condition monitoring, vibration condition monitoring, lubricant oil analysis, acoustic emission testing, temperature monitoring, motor current signature analysis, and ultrasound emission. The article describes the evolution of condition-based maintenance in CM. It also describes the basics of integrated vehicle health management, a capability that enables a number of maintenance philosophies. The article concludes with a discussion on various condition monitoring in industrial sectors, including condition-monitoring techniques in nuclear power plants, road condition monitoring, and condition monitoring in wind turbines.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006447
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
... colored reconstruction of a pit hole point cloud Other Visual Methods Automated Optical Inspection Systems Visual inspection involves human vision alone or combines various optical aids. Machine vision replaces human vision in some industries where high-volume production of high-quality parts...
Abstract
Visual inspection (VI) is the oldest inspection technique man has used as a quality-control tool to evaluate products, assess their final form in terms of fabrication accuracy and external features based on experience, and decide on their acceptance or rejection. This article discusses the basic principles of visual inspection in terms of direct visual examination and indirect visual examination as well as advantages and limitations of visual inspection. It reviews the factors affecting the effectiveness of VI as a nondestructive testing (NDT): lighting conditions of observation, condition of surface under inspection, physical state/condition of inspector, proper training of personnel and level of expertise, and knowledge of applicable standards. The article provides schematic illustrations of rigid borescopes, fiberscopes, and videoscopes. It concludes with a discussion on automated optical inspection systems.
Book: Machining
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 16
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1989
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v16.a0002191
EISBN: 978-1-62708-188-7
...: Because beryllium is expensive, near-net shape blanks should be used whenever possible to reduce material waste and subsequent recovery costs The dust and chips generated in machining are toxic to humans and can cause beryllium disease; therefore, a tested exhaust system and an approved monitoring...
Abstract
This article discusses the properties of beryllium metals that require special attention when machining. It provides information on the considerations of S65 and selects 65 beryllium materials that are used for conducting tool wear studies and surface damage studies. The article highlights some of the precautions to be followed while machining beryllium metals. Information on the cutting oils, cutting tools, and speeds and feeds used in turning the beryllium are also provided. The article describes the chemical milling and photochemical machining methods that are used for etching beryllium components.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 18
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2017
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v18.a0006404
EISBN: 978-1-62708-192-4
... semiconstrained knee replacement constrained knee replacement dental implants temporomandibular joints hip-wear simulation standards knee-wear simulation standards spinal disc-wear simulation standards biotribology THE HUMAN PHYSIOLOGICAL SYSTEM is unlike common mechanical engineering systems...
Abstract
The human internal environment plays a vital role in the friction and wear of implants and prosthetic devices. This article describes the tribological/wear behavior of implants. It discusses the classification of active tribological pairs, namely, amphiarthosis joints and diarthosis joints. The article details the classification of total knee replacement, depending on the type of mechanical stability, including nonconstrained knee replacement, semiconstrained knee replacement, and constrained knee replacement. It also discusses the classifications of passive tribological pairs, namely, total disc replacement in the spine, dental implants, and temporomandibular joint. It describes the various testing methods for characterizing the implant materials used in hip, knee, spine, and dental applications. The article also describes the typical standards used for testing wear behavior of tribological pairs, namely, hip-wear simulation standards, knee-wear simulation standards, and spinal disc-wear simulation standards.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4C
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 09 June 2014
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04c.a0005858
EISBN: 978-1-62708-167-2
... an overall balance. Under a storm cloud, the electric field can reach 10 kV/m. Human bodies, in the absence of any external electric field, create microcurrents caused by chemical reactions corresponding to the normal body functions. Some signals relayed by our nervous system take the form...
Abstract
This article provides an overview of electromagnetic fields (EMFs) and discusses their direct and indirect effects on human health. It provides a detailed description of the exposure levels of EMFs in residential and work environments. The article examines the international and European standards and regulations regarding occupational exposure to EMFs encountered in industrial activities. It discusses the categories of work equipment or activities that may expose the worker above and under the orientation value. The article also describes the main principles underlying the protection system adopted for the frequency range of 50 Hz to 10 MHz.
Book: Machining
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 16
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1989
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v16.a0002176
EISBN: 978-1-62708-188-7
... automatically by the graphics system. This information is output from the system in a format that requires no human intervention before being input to a computer for analysis. Should the analysis indicate that the geometry requires modification, this is done rapidly at the cathode ray tube (CRT) terminal...
Abstract
This article describes the basic functions that should be included when considering the relationship of computer-aided design (CAD)/computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) and machining. These include design, analysis, drafting, process planning, part programming, program verification, part machining, and inspection. The article provides information on hardware, data base, interfaces, and benefits of integrating machining with the CAD/CAM system of a manufacturing plant. It also provides an overview of direct, computer and, distributed numerical control, which are devoid of a number of problems inherent in conventional numerical control.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003223
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... quantitatively or qualitative characterizes the effects the environmental burdens identified in the inventory stage have on local and global environments. Specifically, the magnitude of the effects on ecological and human health and on resource reserves are determined. Impact analysis is, at this time...
Abstract
Product design greatly influences the recycling and reuse of manufacturing materials. This article presents a design for recycling strategy based on ease of disassembly, minimizing process scrap, using readily recyclable materials, and labelling or otherwise identifying parts. It also discusses the concept of life-cycle analysis (LCA), a quantitative accounting of the environmental and economic costs of using a given material and the energy required to make, distribute, operate, and eventually dispose of the host product and its constituent materials. An important but often overlooked step in the LCA process is to identify potential improvement pathways.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006753
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... from which they are constructed cannot “fail” in the same sense as humans. They respond to their environments in ways which designers/engineers/scientists should understand and anticipate. So, the failure presented for analysis is really a failure to meet expectations. Whose expectations? Understanding...
Abstract
This article briefly introduces the concepts of failure analysis, including root-cause analysis (RCA), and the role of failure analysis as a general engineering tool for enhancing product quality and failure prevention. It initially provides definitions of failure on several different levels, followed by a discussion on the role of failure analysis and the appreciation of quality assurance and user expectations. Systematic analysis of equipment failures reveals physical root causes that fall into one of four fundamental categories: design, manufacturing/installation, service, and material, which are discussed in the following sections along with examples. The tools available for failure analysis are then covered. Further, the article describes the categories of mode of failure: distortion or undesired deformation, fracture, corrosion, and wear. It provides information on the processes involved in RCA and the charting methods that may be useful in RCA and ends with a description of various factors associated with failure prevention.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003500
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... (RCA) techniques are effective in exploring some of the other contributors to failures, such as the human and latent root causes. Properly performed, failure analysis and RCA are critical steps in the overall problem-solving process and are key ingredients for correcting and preventing failures...
Abstract
This article briefly introduces the concepts of failure analysis and root cause analysis (RCA), and the role of failure analysis as a general engineering tool for enhancing product quality and failure prevention. It reviews four fundamental categories of physical root causes, namely, design deficiencies, material defects, manufacturing/installation defects, and service life anomalies, with examples. The article describes several common charting methods that may be useful in performing an RCA. It also discusses other failure analysis tools, including review of all sources of input and information, people interviews, laboratory investigations, stress analysis, and fracture mechanics analysis. The article concludes with information on the categories of failure and failure prevention.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001237
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... capabilities. The modern quantitative image analysis systems driven by personal computers can handle complex images quickly and accurately, with resolutions comparable to those of the human eye. The most economical image systems convert an analog camera signal to a digital signal through a hardware processor...
Abstract
Quantitative image analysis has expanded the capabilities of surface analysis significantly with the use of computer technology. This article provides an overview of the quantitative image analysis and optical microscopy. It describes the various steps involved in surface preparation of samples prone to abrasion damage and artifacts for quantitative image analysis.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 6A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 October 2011
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v06a.a0005578
EISBN: 978-1-62708-174-0
... the desired DWP. If the production floor conditions do not differ too much from the development environment, and the process and environmental variability is kept to a minimum, then the welding operation can be expected to satisfy the postprocess quality inspection procedures. Otherwise, human or computer...
Abstract
This article lists the system parameters of the friction welding process and describes the four categories of monitoring and control of the manufacturing process. It discusses the monitoring methods of a rotary friction welded sample, for determining in-process quality of ferrous alloys, and dissimilar metals using acoustic emission. The article reviews the feasibility of detecting the presence of ferrite during microstructural evolution of friction welding of three austenitic stainless steels: 310, 304, and 255. It also explains the in-process quality control of friction welding.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003189
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... (or grindability) of the material, compatibility (metallurgical, chemical, and human), and acceptability (fluid properties, reliability, and stability). Machinability The selection of the type of cutting fluid for use should be based on: Type of machining operation Material being machined Tool...
Abstract
Cutting fluids play a major role in increasing productivity and reducing costs by making possible the use of higher cutting speeds, higher feed rates, and greater depths of cut. After listing the functions of cutting fluids, this article then covers the major types, characteristics, advantages and limitations of cutting and grinding fluids, such as cutting oils, water-miscible fluids, gaseous fluids, pastes, and solid lubricants along with their subtypes. It discusses the factors considered during the selection of cutting fluid, focusing on machinability (or grindability) of the material, compatibility (metallurgical, chemical, and human), and acceptability (fluid properties, reliability, and stability). The article also describes various application methods of cutting fluids and precautions that should be observed by the operator.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003505
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... 7 to 14 points with the majority being about 10 to 11 points. Probably the optimum size is from 9 to 11 points—sizes smaller or larger can slow reading speed.” Anticipating Errors When humans are involved in the use of a product or system, there will be errors. Some errors are extremely...
Abstract
This article discusses the three legal theories on which a products liability lawsuit is based and the issues of hazard, risk, and danger in the context of liability. It describes manufacturing and design defects of various products. The article explains a design that is analyzed from the human factors viewpoint and details the preventive measures of the defects, with examples. It presents four paramount questions relating to the probability of injury which are asked even when one executes all possible preventive measures carefully and thoroughly.