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Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003248
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... mm diameter particle of 28.27 mm 2 . The above example illustrates the calculation of the average area of particles in a two-phase microstructure. Counting of the number of intersections of a line of known length with particle or grain features, P L , or the number of interceptions of...
Abstract
Quantifying microstructural parameters has received considerable attention and success in developing procedures and using such data to develop structure/property relationships has been achieved. This article reviews many of the simple stereological counting measurements of volume fraction, grain structure (two-phase grain structures, and nonequiaxed grain structures), grain size, and inclusion content. It also reviews simple relationships between number of grains per unit area, number of intersections of a line of known length with particle or grain, and number of interceptions of particles or grains by a line of known length.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006682
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
...-phase microstructure using stereological field measurements rather than individual particle measurements. Counting of the number of intersections of a line of known length with particle boundaries or grain boundaries, P L , or the number of interceptions of particles or grains by a line of known...
Abstract
This article reviews many commonly used stereological counting measurements and the relationships based on these parameters. The discussion covers the processes involved in sampling and specimen preparation. Quantitative microstructural measurements are described including volume fraction, number per unit area, intersections and intercepts per unit length, grain size, and inclusion content.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4E
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04e.a0006287
EISBN: 978-1-62708-169-6
..., zirconium, chromium, vanadium, scandium, nickel, tin, and bismuth. The article discusses the secondary phases in aluminum alloys, namely, nonmetallic inclusions, porosity, primary particles, constituent particles, dispersoids, precipitates, grain and dislocation structure, and crystallographic texture. It...
Abstract
This article describes the general categories and metallurgy of heat treatable aluminum alloys. It briefly reviews the key impurities and each of the principal alloying elements in aluminum alloys, namely, copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon, zinc, iron, lithium, titanium, boron, zirconium, chromium, vanadium, scandium, nickel, tin, and bismuth. The article discusses the secondary phases in aluminum alloys, namely, nonmetallic inclusions, porosity, primary particles, constituent particles, dispersoids, precipitates, grain and dislocation structure, and crystallographic texture. It also discusses the mechanisms used for strengthening aluminum alloys, including solid-solution hardening, grain-size strengthening, work or strain hardening, and precipitation hardening. The process of precipitation hardening involves solution heat treatment, quenching, and subsequent aging of the as-quenched supersaturated solid solution. The article briefly discusses these processes of precipitation hardening. It also reviews precipitation in various alloy systems, including 2xxx, 6xxx, 7xxx, aluminum-lithium, and Al-Mg-Li systems.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001232
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... Abstract Abrasive finishing is a method where a large number of multipoint or random cutting edges are coupled with abrasive grains as a bond or matrix material for effective removal of material at smaller chip sizes. This article provides a broad overview of the various categories of abrasive...
Abstract
Abrasive finishing is a method where a large number of multipoint or random cutting edges are coupled with abrasive grains as a bond or matrix material for effective removal of material at smaller chip sizes. This article provides a broad overview of the various categories of abrasive products and materials, abrasive finishing processes, and the mechanisms of delivering the abrasives to the grinding or machining zone. Abrasive finishing processes, such as grinding, honing, superfinishing, microgrinding, polishing, buffing, and lapping, are discussed. The article presents a brief discussion on abrasive jet machining and ultrasonic machining. It concludes with a discussion on the four categories of factors that affect the abrasive finishing or machining: machine tool, work material, wheel selection, and operational.
Book: Casting
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 15
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005301
EISBN: 978-1-62708-187-0
... modification changes porosity formation in a casting. It describes the mechanisms responsible for silicon modification, as well as the modifications and changes in eutectic nucleation and eutectic grain structure. The article reviews the usage of strontium during process steps in foundry practices. The growth...
Abstract
This article focuses on aspects important for the commercial production of castings. It discusses the modification process in hypoeutectic and eutectic alloys that differ only in the relative volume fraction of primary aluminum and aluminum-silicon eutectic. The article explains how modification changes porosity formation in a casting. It describes the mechanisms responsible for silicon modification, as well as the modifications and changes in eutectic nucleation and eutectic grain structure. The article reviews the usage of strontium during process steps in foundry practices. The growth of silicon eutectic is described to explain effects ancillary to silicon modification. The article also discusses the effects of elements, such as phosphorus, antimony, bismuth, magnesium, boron, and calcium, on the silicon structure.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006670
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... transverse phase domains or grain boundaries, and often are fabricated at very high purity levels. Despite their high purity, the behavior of devices fabricated from these materials can still be quite sensitive to trace elemental constituents. These trace elements may be added intentionally, such as in the...
Abstract
This article introduces various techniques commonly used in the characterization of semiconductors, namely single-crystal, polycrystalline, amorphous, oxide, organic, and low-dimensional semiconductors and semiconductor devices. The discussion covers material classification, fabrication methods, sample preparation, bulk/elemental characterization methods, microstructural characterization methods, surface characterization methods, and electronic characterization methods.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001237
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... measurements (stereology) Object measurements (feature measurement) Area fraction Area Area percent Length ASTM E 112 grain size Width Count Aspect ratio Perimeter Feret measurements Mean intercept distance Perimeter Mean particle surface area Sphericity Density Convex...
Abstract
Quantitative image analysis has expanded the capabilities of surface analysis significantly with the use of computer technology. This article provides an overview of the quantitative image analysis and optical microscopy. It describes the various steps involved in surface preparation of samples prone to abrasion damage and artifacts for quantitative image analysis.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004029
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... cube are gradually drawn into the “tube” that is shown. The extent to which grain orientations are concentrated within as opposed to outside the tube (and therefore the texture “intensity”) increases with the amount of rolling reduction. Following each rolling pass, the material may either...
Abstract
The processing of steel involves five distinct sets of texture development mechanisms, namely, austenite deformation, austenite recrystallization, gamma-to-alpha transformation, ferrite deformation, and static recrystallization during annealing after cold rolling. This article provides an introduction on crystallographic textures. It discusses the effects of austenite rolling and recrystallization on the texture and transformation behavior of recrystallized austenite and deformed austenite. The article illustrates the overall summary of the rolling and transformation behavior. It details cold-rolling textures, annealing textures, and recrystallization textures of steel samples. The article concludes with a summary of texture development during cold rolling and annealing.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003252
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... microstructural phases and compounds by their crystal structures Characterizing preferred crystallographic orientations by analysis of orientations of individual grains Secondary electron imaging of surface topography: ∼10 nm Backscattered electron imaging of atomic number contrast: ∼1 μm X-ray...
Abstract
Microstructural analysis is the combined characterization of the morphology, elemental composition, and crystallography of microstructural features through the use of a microscope. This article reviews three types of the most commonly used electron microscopies in metallurgical studies, namely scanning electron microscopy, electron probe microanalysis, and transmission electron microscopy. It briefly describes the operating principles, instrumentation which includes energy dispersive X-ray detectors, spatial resolution, typical use of the techniques, elemental analysis detection threshold and precision, limitations, sample requirements, and the capabilities of related techniques.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006786
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... tensile stress of the metal. This form involves grain-boundary penetration by the liquid metal and is less common than type 1. Type 3: Grain-boundary penetration of a solid metal by a specific liquid metal, which causes the solid metal to eventually disintegrate. Stress does not appear to be a...
Abstract
Metal-induced embrittlement is a phenomenon in which the ductility or the fracture stress of a solid metal is reduced by surface contact with another metal in either the liquid or solid form. This article summarizes some of the characteristics of liquid-metal- and solid-metal-induced embrittlement. This phenomenon shares many of these characteristics with other modes of environmentally induced cracking, such as hydrogen embrittlement and stress-corrosion cracking. The discussion covers the occurrence, failure analysis, and service failures of the embrittlement. The article also briefly reviews some commercial alloy systems in which liquid-metal-induced embrittlement or solid-metal-induced embrittlement has been documented and describes some examples of cracking due to these phenomena, either in manufacturing or in service.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001300
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... of grain boundaries. On a larger scale, extending over many grain diameters, structure influences more complex phenomena, such as contact at surfaces or optical properties. For coatings, structure-property relationships are further complicated by the fact that coating microstructures are generally...
Abstract
This article describes the structure of coatings produced by plasma spraying, vapor deposition, and electrodeposition processes. The main techniques used for microstructure assessment are introduced. The relationship between the microstructure and property is also discussed. The experimental techniques for microstructural characterization include metallographic technique, X-ray diffraction, electron, microscopies, and porosimetry.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 22A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2009
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v22a.a0005412
EISBN: 978-1-62708-196-2
... phases, while grain boundaries separate crystals of the same phase but with different spatial orientation. The arrangement of atoms in the interface is neither that of the crystal nor of a liquid ( Ref 1 ). Depending on the mutual orientation relationship of the crystals and such parameters as pressure...
Abstract
This article summarizes a physical model of an interface structure and shows how the model helps in optimizing atomistic modeling studies. It presents the orientation relationship of the interface structure to define the mutual crystallographic position of adjacent crystals. The article describes the model-informed atomistic modeling of the interface structures for interpolating the results of atomistic modeling to predict the properties of interfaces. Theories to predict low-energy orientation relationships are described. The article discusses the use of the localization parameter, such as shear modulus, bonding energy, and transformations, for prediction of interface structures. It provides information on the application of the atomistic modeling of interface structure to predict interface reaction mechanisms.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.9781627082136
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
Book: Casting
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 15
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005342
EISBN: 978-1-62708-187-0
..., bright crystalline appearance, and a chevron pattern that points to the origin. Examination at high magnification will show cleavage fracture through the grains. The transgranular fracture is related to the nil-ductility transition temperature (NDTT) of the alloy, the strain rate, or brittle phases in...
Abstract
This article discusses the visual and microscopic characteristics of fractures of cast alloys. The fractures include ductile rupture, transgranular brittle fracture, intergranular fracture, fatigue, and environmentally induced fracture. The article describes the factors that affect the fracture appearance.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003214
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... electrolyte, and (c) the surface condition prior to electropolishing (i.e., surface contamination, grain size, and inclusions). MASS FINISHING normally involves loading of components to be finished into a container together with some abrasive medium, water, and compound. Action is applied to the...
Abstract
Finishing refers to a wide variety of processes that generally involve material removal in one form or another to generate surfaces with specific geometries, tolerances, and functional or decorative characteristics. This article discusses four major finishing methods, namely, abrasive machining, electropolishing, mass finishing, and shot peening. In each case, it describes subtypes, process variations, and the associated equipment.
Book: Casting
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 15
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005340
EISBN: 978-1-62708-187-0
...; lower number/rating indicates “cleaner” melt DasGupta et al. ( Ref 8 ) examined the correlation of RPT densities to hydrogen content (AlSCAN measurements) of an unmodified and not grain-refined 356 aluminum alloy. The correlation curve, shown in Fig. 18 , was obtained from 100 data points (AlSCAN...
Abstract
Several qualitative, semiquantitative, and quantitative tests are available to estimate and control metal cleanliness, particularly inclusion concentration of aluminum alloys. This article provides a brief description of few of the metal cleanliness assessment techniques, such as chemical analysis, pressure filter tests, electric resistivity tests, reduced-pressure test, and ultrasonic technique. It also lists the various impurities detection methods of chemical analysis and their limitations.
Book: Casting
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 15
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005215
EISBN: 978-1-62708-187-0
... ). The influence of grain structure on microsegregation has been investigated for α-brass. Figure 4 compares for columnar and equiaxed grain structures the zinc distributions measured by point counting on 13 by 13 grids and plotting the points in ascending order of measured zinc content. The columnar...
Abstract
This article discusses the two extremes of solute redistribution that results in microsegregation. The solute redistribution includes equilibrium solidification, nonequilibrium Gulliver-Scheil solidification, and nonequilibrium solidification with back diffusion. The measurement and kinetics of microsegregation are discussed for the binary isomorphous systems: titanium-molybdenum; binary eutectic systems: aluminum-copper and aluminum-silicon; binary peritectic systems: copper-zinc; multicomponent eutectic systems: Al-Si-Cu-Mg; and for systems with both eutectic and peritectic reactions: Fe-C-Cr and nickel-base superalloy.
Book: Casting
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 15
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005265
EISBN: 978-1-62708-187-0
... successfully cast at metal temperatures only 28 °C (50 °F) over the solidus temperature of the alloy, thus providing a very fine, uniform grain structure. The higher detail, finer grain size, and reduced oxide inclusion count help to enable product designs that will operate at higher temperatures, improving...
Abstract
This article discusses several production implementations that use differential pressure countergravity mold filling methods. These include countergravity low-pressure air process, countergravity low-pressure vacuum process, countergravity low-pressure inert atmosphere process, countergravity pressure vacuum process, supported shell technique, loose sand vacuum process, and countergravity centrifugal casting process.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006656
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... diffraction (μXRD) is a tool for the examination of materials in situ. Samples are either part of a rock, slab, or polished thin section, or they are encased in a medium, such as epoxy, a capillary, etc. This allows for the sampling of specimens ranging from single crystals to fine-grained mixtures. Unlike...
Abstract
This article discusses various concepts of micro x-ray diffraction (XRD) used for the examination of materials in situ. The discussion covers the principles, equipment used, sample preparation procedure, considerations for calibrating a detector, steps for performing data analysis, and applications and interpretation of micro-XRD.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003062
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
... out” of the glass binders used to obtain conductor adherence or resistor uniformity. The proper grain size and resulting surface finish are of prime importance in conductor adhesion and solderability, particularly with respect to glass-bonded conductors. Glass-bonded conductors adhere to the substrate...
Abstract
Ceramic materials serve important insulative, capacitive, conductive, resistive, sensor, electrooptic, and magnetic functions in a wide variety of electrical and electronic circuitry. This article focuses on various applications of advanced ceramics in both electric power and electronics industry, namely, dielectric, piezoelectric, ferroelectric, sensing, magnetic and superconducting devices.