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Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003030
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
... Abstract Tribology is the science and technology of interacting surfaces in relative motion or, the study of friction, wear, and lubrication. This article focuses on friction and wear processes that aid in the evaluation and selection of materials, for polymers and some composites used in...
Abstract
Tribology is the science and technology of interacting surfaces in relative motion or, the study of friction, wear, and lubrication. This article focuses on friction and wear processes that aid in the evaluation and selection of materials, for polymers and some composites used in friction and wear applications. It provides information on friction, types of wear, and lubrication. The article includes a brief description of the friction and wear test methods, laboratory-scale friction, and wear testing, usually performed either to rank the performance of candidate materials for an application or to investigate a particular wear process. It describes the wear tests conducted with/without abrasives and explains the concept of PV limit (where P is contact pressure and V is velocity). The article concludes with references and tables of friction and wear test data for polymeric materials.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 23
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2012
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v23.a0005677
EISBN: 978-1-62708-198-6
... smeared deposits on the root surface, and a damaged curette causes heavy scratches. Space closure and canine retraction in continuous arch wire techniques require sufficient force to overcome frictional forces between the bracket attached to the tooth and the arch wire ( Fig 16 ). Excessive wire...
Abstract
This article reviews the friction and wear of various dental materials that have been studied by fundamental wear measurements, simulated service wear measurements, and clinical measurements. The materials include dental amalgam, composite restorative materials, pit and fissure sealants, dental cements, porcelain and plastic denture teeth, dental feldspathic porcelain and ceramics, endodontic instruments, periodontal Instruments, and orthodontic wires. The article describes the correlations of properties, such as hardness, fracture toughness, and wear. It discusses wear mechanism such as sliding adhesive wear, two-body abrasion, three-body abrasion, erosion, and fatigue.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 23
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2012
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v23.a0005678
EISBN: 978-1-62708-198-6
..., but it does include the essential feature reversals in motion and hence in surface shear stresses. A six-station pin-on-plate friction and wear machine is shown in Fig. 6 . Fig. 6 Six-station reciprocating pin-on-plate friction and wear machine used to evaluate prosthetic implant materials...
Abstract
Total joint replacement in orthopedic surgery can be achieved by excision, interposition, and replacement arthroplasty. This article details the most common materials used in total replacement synovial joints, such as metals, ceramics, and ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE). The principal physical properties and tribological characteristics of these materials are summarized. The article discusses the pin-on-disk experiments and pin-on-plate experiments for determining friction and wear characteristics. It details the use of various types of joint simulators, such as hip joint simulators and knee joint simulators, to evaluate the performance of engineering tribological components in machine simulators. The article describes in vivo assessment of total joint replacement performance.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0009008
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... Abstract A cylindrical specimen compressed with friction at the die surfaces does not remain cylindrical in shape but becomes bulged or barreled. Tensile stresses associated with the bulging surface make the upset test a candidate for workability testing. This article discusses test-specimen...
Abstract
A cylindrical specimen compressed with friction at the die surfaces does not remain cylindrical in shape but becomes bulged or barreled. Tensile stresses associated with the bulging surface make the upset test a candidate for workability testing. This article discusses test-specimen geometry and friction conditions; strain measurements; crack detection; and material inhomogeneities, which are to be considered for performing cold upset testing. It describes test characteristics in terms of deformation, free-surface strains, and stress states for performing cylindrical compression tests. The article illustrates the fracture loci in cylindrical, tapered, and flanged upset-test specimens of aluminum alloy and type 1045 cold-finished steel.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006791
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... FRICTION AND WEAR are important when considering the operation and efficiency of components and mechanical systems. The friction between contact surfaces in motion results in wasted energy and generated heat, whereas any type of wear can lead to a degradation in surface quality, unexpected clearances, a...
Abstract
Friction and wear are important when considering the operation and efficiency of components and mechanical systems. Among the different types and mechanisms of wear, adhesive wear is very serious. Adhesion results in a high coefficient of friction as well as in serious damage to the contacting surfaces. In extreme cases, it may lead to complete prevention of sliding; as such, adhesive wear represents one of the fundamental causes of failure for most metal sliding contacts, accounting for approximately 70% of typical component failures. This article discusses the mechanism and failure modes of adhesive wear including scoring, scuffing, seizure, and galling, and describes the processes involved in classic laboratory-type and standardized tests for the evaluation of adhesive wear. It includes information on standardized galling tests, twist compression, slider-on-flat-surface, load-scanning, and scratch tests. After a discussion on gear scuffing, information on the material-dependent adhesive wear and factors preventing adhesive wear is provided.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001282
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... surface preparation methods and finishing treatments of coated parts. The article also explains the tests to evaluate the coating quality and the effects of coating structures and mechanical properties on coated parts. It concludes with a discussion on the uses of thermal spray coatings. coating...
Abstract
This article introduces thermal spray coatings and describes the various types of coating processes and coating devices, including the flame spray, electric-arc spray, plasma spray, transferred plasma arc, high-velocity oxyfuel, and detonation gun. It provides information on the surface preparation methods and finishing treatments of coated parts. The article also explains the tests to evaluate the coating quality and the effects of coating structures and mechanical properties on coated parts. It concludes with a discussion on the uses of thermal spray coatings.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003187
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... Abstract Fundamental to the machining process, is the metal-cutting operation, which involves extensive plastic deformation of the work piece ahead of the tool tip, high temperatures, and severe frictional conditions at the interfaces of the tool, chip, and work piece. This article explains...
Abstract
Fundamental to the machining process, is the metal-cutting operation, which involves extensive plastic deformation of the work piece ahead of the tool tip, high temperatures, and severe frictional conditions at the interfaces of the tool, chip, and work piece. This article explains that the basic mechanism of chip formation is shear deformation, which is controlled by work material properties such as yield strength, shear strength, friction behavior, hardness, and ductility. It describes various chip types, as well as the cutting parameters that influence chip formation. It also demonstrates how the service life of cutting tools is determined by a number of wear processes, including tool wear, machining parameters, and tool force and power requirements. It concludes by presenting a comprehensive collection of formulas for turning, milling, drilling, and broaching, and its average unit power requirement.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 22A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2009
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v22a.a0005417
EISBN: 978-1-62708-196-2
... article describes the behavior of oxide scale on the surface of hot metal undergoing thermomechanical processing. It concludes with information on the effects of process and material parameters on interfacial phenomena. deformation metal-forming microforming surface interactions friction...
Abstract
This article examines the deformation processes in metal-forming operations and considers the effects introduced by scale factors when microforming. It discusses the process parameters and variables affecting surface interactions, including temperature, speed, reduction, stiffness, and dynamic response of equipment. The article reviews the determination of friction coefficient using laboratory monitoring methods, indirect measurements, and the inverse method. It considers the determination of the interface heat-transfer coefficient by using the ring test and computer simulations. The article describes the behavior of oxide scale on the surface of hot metal undergoing thermomechanical processing. It concludes with information on the effects of process and material parameters on interfacial phenomena.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003043
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
...-frequency vibrating of the materials may dislocate and abrade the fiber structure of the composite. Vibrational bonding Ideal for relatively small, flat parts and some three-dimensional parts. Requires the rapid frictional abrading of the two surfaces to be bonded, which may disrupt the fiber embedded...
Abstract
The structural efficiency of a composite structure is established by its joints and assembly. Adhesive bonding, mechanical fastening, and fusion bonding are three types of joining methods for polymer-matrix composites. This article provides information on surface treatment and the applications of adhesive bonding. It discusses the types of adhesives, namely, epoxy adhesives, epoxy-phenolic adhesives, condensation-reaction PI adhesives, addition-reaction PI adhesives, bismaleimide adhesives, and structural adhesives. The article provides information on fastener selection considerations, including corrosion compatibility, fastener materials and strength, head configurations, importance of clamp-up, interference fit fasteners, lightning strike protection, blind fastening, and sensitivity to hole quality. Types of fusion bonding are presented, namely, thermal welding, friction welding, electromagnetic welding, and polymer-coated material welding.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003021
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
... process comprises four distinct phases when tie layers are employed. The rapid increase in temperature up to the polymer melting point results from frictional heating at surface asperities and, to a much lesser extent, viscoelastic dissipation. In phase II of the ultrasonic welding process, bulk melting...
Abstract
This article discusses the classification of the attachment and joining methods in plastics, including mechanical fastening, adhesive bonding, solvent bonding, and welding. It describes the mechanical fastening techniques used to join both similar and dissimilar materials with machine screws or bolts, nuts and washers, molded-in threads, self-threading screws, rivets, spring-steel fasteners, press fits, and snap fits. The article explains solvent bonding used for thermoplastic parts, and tabulates the solvent types used with various plastics. It also describes the surface preparation of plastics, chemical treatment for adhesion, and tabulates the adhesive types for bonding plastics to plastics and plastics to nonplastics. The article briefly describes the welding processes of thermoplastics, including fusion welding (hot-tool, hot gas, extrusion, and focused infrared), friction welding (vibration, spin, and ultrasonic), and electromagnetic welding (resistance, induction, dielectric, and microwave). It concludes with the evaluation of welds using destructive and nondestructive testing.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003209
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... alignment and to produce the required length tolerance for a specific set of welding conditions, is not critical. Frictional wear removes irregularities from the joint surfaces and leaves clean, smooth surfaces heated to welding temperature. Ductile metals, aluminum and copper alloys, as well as the...
Abstract
This article describes the mechanism, advantages and disadvantages, fundamentals, capabilities, variations, equipment used, and weldability of metals in solid-state welding processes, including diffusion bonding, explosion welding, friction welding, ultrasonic welding, upset welding, and deformation welding.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0009007
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
..., and it is uniform throughout the specimen. This is the ideal condition to achieve when the compression test is used to measure the flow stress. When friction is present at the die contact surfaces, bulging occurs, and the strain path curves upward, as shown in Fig. 19 . Fig. 19 (a) Localized...
Abstract
This article discusses a number of workability tests that are especially applicable to the forging process. The primary tests for workability are those for which the stress state is well known and controlled. The article provides information on the tension test, torsion test, compression test, and bend test. It examines specialized tests including plane-strain compression test, partial-width indentation test, secondary-tension test, and ring compression test. The article explains that workability is determined by two main factors: the ability to deform without fracture and the stress state and friction conditions present in the bulk deformation process. These two factors are described and brought together in an experimental workability analysis.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003979
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... (webs and ribs) are more difficult to forge because they have more surface area per unit volume. Such variations in shape maximize the effects of friction and temperature changes and therefore influence the final pressure required to fill the die cavities. There is a direct relationship between the...
Abstract
This article provides an overview of the capabilities of closed-die forging. One of the most important aspects of closed-die forging is proper design of preforming operations and of blocker dies to achieve adequate metal distribution. The article describes the effects of friction and lubrication in forging. It discusses the types of closed-die forgings, namely, blocker-type, conventional, and close-tolerance. The article illustrates the classification of forging shapes and explains how to predict the forging pressure and the control of die temperature during closed-die forging. It explains the use of heating equipment for closed-die forging and tabulates the maximum safe forging temperatures for carbon and alloy steels. The article concludes with a discussion on a trimming method used for closed-die forgings.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 23
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2012
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v23.a0005668
EISBN: 978-1-62708-198-6
... shown in Fig. 2 . Most modern instruments will record the raw output of the friction force sensor and then recalculate the friction coefficient based on the actual normal load used. Both signals may be recorded. Note in Fig. 2 the common running-in behavior as the two surfaces bed into each other...
Abstract
This article provides an overview of the fundamentals of tribology. It describes the advantages, disadvantages, and applications of pin-on-disk method, which is the most commonly used configuration for testing biomaterials and for the reproducible measurement of friction and wear. The article illustrates practical tribocorrosion setup that allows the user to perform wear tests in corrosive environments under well-defined electrochemical conditions and at controlled temperature. It describes the effect of changes in electrical contact resistance on tribological mode. The article discusses various in vivo environmental conditions in tribological tests. Some typical examples of biomaterials testing are also provided.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003135
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... 950 °C (1020 to 1740 °F) in a protective atmosphere. Typical sintering times are 30 to 60 min. The sintered parts are typically machined for dimensional accuracy and surface parallelism. The friction elements are usually brazed, welded, riveted, or mechanically fastened to the supporting steel...
Abstract
This article discusses the characteristics, properties, and production methods of copper powders and copper alloy powders. Bulk of the discussion is devoted to production and applications of powder metallurgy (P/M) parts, including pure copper P/M parts, bronze P/M parts, brass and nickel silver P/M parts, copper-nickel P/M parts, copper-lead P/M parts, copper-base P/M friction materials, copper-base P/M electrical contact materials, copper-base P/M brush materials, infiltrated parts, and oxide-dispersion-strengthened copper P/M materials.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0009009
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... 25 . The fundamental difficulties associated with high friction at the platen/specimen interface and barreling of the free surface can be minimized to a large degree in the plane-strain compression test Ref 26 ). Moreover, as Fig. 13 shows, this test is ideally suited for testing sheet or thin...
Abstract
This article describes the use of compression tests, namely, cylindrical compression, ring compression, and plane-strain compression tests at elevated temperatures. It discusses the effects of the temperature, strain rate, and deformation heating on metals during the cylindrical compression test, with the help of flow curves. The article illustrates the testing apparatus used in the cylindrical compression test. It describes the issues regarding friction and temperature, and strain-rate control with proper test equipment and experimental planning during the ring compression test and plane-strain compression test. The article also reviews the testing conditions, procedures, and advantages of hot plane-strain compression test.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001236
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... control of aspects of component performance related to surface topography is required (e.g., wear characteristics, friction, reflectivity, resistance to stress failure, or lubrication properties), roughness is analyzed. If control of some aspect of machine tool performance or component performance (e.g...
Abstract
Most surfaces have regular and irregular spacings that tend to form a pattern or texture on the surface. This article provides information on the general background of surface topography and discusses the different methods for measuring surface topography, namely, contact and noncontact techniques, and the focus-follow method. Examples of different types of parameters obtained and how they are applied can best be described by discussing the various types of surfaces generated by finishing methods. The surfaces include ground, turned, and milled machined surfaces; surfaces subjected to stress; bearing surfaces; plateau honed and tapped surfaces; and reflective, painted, elastic, and wear-resistant surfaces.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2013
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04a.a0005808
EISBN: 978-1-62708-165-8
... 247 CP-Ti (Ti + C) Improved frictional resistance Ref 248 BT9 (Ti 5 Si 3 /NiTi 2 ) Superior load and wear resistance attributed to composite intermetallic (Ti 5 Si 3 /NiTi 2 ) formation Ref 249 BT20 (BT20) Microstructural homogeneity results in enhanced hardness and wear resistance...
Abstract
Laser surface hardening is a noncontact process that provides a chemically inert and clean environment as well as flexible integration with operating systems. This article provides a brief discussion on the various conventional surface-modification techniques to enhance the surface and mechanical properties of ferrous and nonferrous alloys. The techniques are physical vapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition, sputtering, ion plating, electroplating, electroless plating, and displacement plating. The article describes five categories of laser surface modification, namely, laser surface heat treatment, laser surface melting such as skin melting or glazing, laser direct metal deposition such as cladding, alloying, and hardfacing, laser physical vapor deposition, and laser shock peening. The article provides detailed information on absorptivity, laser scanning technology, and thermokinetic phase transformations. It also describes the influence of cooling rate on laser heat treatment and the effect of processing parameters on temperature, microstructure, and case depth hardness.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001323
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
...) Coefficient of friction 0.16 <0.20 (a) 0.13 0.13 0.25 (a) <0.20 (a) Falex wear rate Good Moderate/poor Excellent Excellent Moderate/poor Good (a) Threshold galling wear Good Moderate/poor Excellent (a) Excellent (a) Good (a) Good (a) Chemical resistance Fair Good...
Abstract
This article focuses on alternatives to chromium in both hard chromium plating and chromate conversion coating. These include electroless nickel plating, nickel-tungsten composite electroplating, spray coating applications, and cobalt/molybdenum-base conversion coating. The article discusses the material and process substitutions that can be used to eliminate the use or emissions of chromium in industrial processes. It describes the physical characteristics of each coating, economics, environmental impacts, advantages, and disadvantages of alternative processes.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001306
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
...) Contains free graphite in the microstructure. (d) Optional. (e) Specified carbon ranges are designated by suffix numbers. Most surface treatments are employed to increase surface hardness and/or wear resistance, minimize adhesion (reduce friction), or improve the...
Abstract
Specialty steels encompass a broad range of ferrous alloys noted for their special processing characteristics (powder metallurgy alloys), corrosion resistance (stainless steels), wear resistance and toughness (tool steels), high strength (maraging steels), or magnetic properties (electrical steels). This article provides a detailed discussion on the various surface treatments, including cleaning, nitriding, carburizing, coating, and plating, performed on specialty steels.