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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006774
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... (ductile, brittle, fatigue, and creep) are described briefly, principally in terms of fracture appearances. A description of the surface, structure, and behavior of each fracture process is also included. The article provides a framework from which a prospective analyst can begin to study the fracture of a...
Abstract
Engineering component and structure failures manifest through many mechanisms but are most often associated with fracture in one or more forms. This article introduces the subject of fractography and aspects of how it is used in failure analysis. The basic types of fracture processes (ductile, brittle, fatigue, and creep) are described briefly, principally in terms of fracture appearances. A description of the surface, structure, and behavior of each fracture process is also included. The article provides a framework from which a prospective analyst can begin to study the fracture of a component of interest in a failure investigation. Details on the mechanisms of deformation, brittle transgranular fracture, intergranular fracture, fatigue fracture, and environmentally affected fracture are also provided.
Book: Fractography
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 12
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1987
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v12.a0001838
EISBN: 978-1-62708-181-8
... ( Ref 19 ) and fracture profiles ( Ref 3 , 20 ) have inadvertently revealed noncompliance with the postulate of self-similitude. Asymptotic behavior is understandable in real curves, of course, because of the limitations of atomic size or, at other levels, the size of the picture element (pixel) in...
Abstract
This article discusses the fractal characteristics of fracture surfaces as a means for describing and quantifying irregular, complex curves and surfaces of fractured materials. It describes the important relationship between the profile and surface roughness parameters that yield the surface area of irregular fracture surfaces. The article reviews the experimental procedures required to obtain profiles and measurements that are made. In addition, fractal equations that linearize all the experimental data and provide constant fractal dimensions are presented in the article. Modified fractal dimensions that result from these analyses appear to possess some generality for natural irregular nonplanar surfaces and their profiles.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006776
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
.... This article focuses on fractography of fatigue. However, it should be noted that fractography is only part of the failure analysis of a fractured component. As with other fracture mechanisms, proper identification of fatigue requires understanding of the fracture behavior of the particular material...
Abstract
Fatigue failure of engineering components and structures results from progressive fracture caused by cyclic or fluctuating loads. Fatigue is an important potential cause of mechanical failure, because most engineering components or structures are or can be subjected to cyclic loads during their lifetime. This article focuses on fractography of fatigue. It provides an abbreviated summary of fatigue processes and mechanisms: fatigue crack initiation, fatigue crack propagation, and final fracture,. Characteristic fatigue fracture features that can be discerned visually or under low magnification are then described. Typical microscopic features observed on structural metals are presented subsequently, followed by a brief discussion on fatigue in polymers and polymer-matrix composites.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006767
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
.... Several other criteria have been proposed (e.g., one based on maximum strain). Additionally, some criteria take into account polar behavior (unequal tensile and compressive failure stresses), anisotropic behavior, and nonconstancy of volume during deformation. The historically early models (Rankine...
Abstract
This article describes concepts and tools that can be used by the failure analyst to understand and address deformation, cracking, or fracture after a stress-related failure has occurred. Issues related to the determination and use of stress are detailed. Stress is defined, and a procedure to deal with stress by determining maximum values through stress transformation is described. The article provides the stress analysis equations of typical component geometries and discusses some of the implications of the stress analysis relative to failure in components. It focuses on linear elastic fracture mechanics analysis, with some mention of elastic-plastic fracture mechanics analysis. The article describes the probabilistic aspects of fatigue and fracture. Information on crack-growth simulation of the material is also provided.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 22A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2009
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v22a.a0005461
EISBN: 978-1-62708-196-2
....” In other words, it was recognized early on that the plastic deformation and fracture behavior of materials were functions not only of the material but the processing conditions as well. At that time, ductility was primarily expressed through measurements of elongation and reduction of area...
Abstract
This article discusses physical analysis, including slab method and upper-bound method and slip-line field analysis, for calculating stress states in plastic deformation processes. It presents various validation standards and models for evaluating the criterion of fracture for use in finite-element analyses of deformation processing. The article reviews the Cockcroft-Latham criterion of fracture and its reformulated extension for analysing the fracture locus for compression. It concludes with information on fundamental fracture models.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006775
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... behavior, they become tools to use for quantitative evaluation of fracture in failure analysis. Multiple approaches have been used; some are based on continuum mechanics to predict behavior of the bulk assembly (without assumptions of the microscopic-scale details and operative mechanisms of crack...
Abstract
This article focuses on characterizing the fracture-surface appearance at the microscale and contains some discussion on both crack nucleation and propagation mechanisms that cause the fracture appearance. It begins with a discussion on microscale models and mechanisms for deformation and fracture. Next, the mechanisms of void nucleation and void coalescence are briefly described. Macroscale and microscale appearances of ductile and brittle fracture are then discussed for various specimen geometries (smooth cylindrical and prismatic) and loading conditions (e.g., tension compression, bending, torsion). Finally, the factors influencing the appearance of a fracture surface and various imperfections or stress raisers are described, followed by a root-cause failure analysis case history to illustrate some of these fractography concepts.
Book: Fractography
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 12
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1987
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v12.a0001831
EISBN: 978-1-62708-181-8
... into three major sections. The section “Fracture Modes” describes the basic fracture modes as well as some of the mechanisms involved in the fracture process. The section “Effect of Environment” discusses how the environment affects metal behavior and fracture appearance. The final section...
Abstract
This article begins with a discussion of the basic fracture modes, including dimple ruptures, cleavages, fatigue fractures, and decohesive ruptures, and of the important mechanisms involved in the fracture process. It then describes the principal effects of the external environment that significantly affect the fracture propagation rate and fracture appearance. The external environment includes hydrogen, corrosive media, low-melting metals, state of stress, strain rate, and temperature. The mechanism of stress-corrosion cracking in metals such as steels, aluminum, brass, and titanium alloys, when exposed to a corrosive environment under stress, is also reviewed. The final section of the article describes and shows fractographs that illustrate the influence of metallurgical discontinuities such as laps, seams, cold shuts, porosity, inclusions, segregation, and unfavorable grain flow in forgings and how these discontinuities affect fracture initiation, propagation, and the features of fracture surfaces.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004001
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... Abstract This article reviews the bulk deformation processes for various aluminide and silicide intermetallic alloys with emphasis on the gamma titanium aluminide alloys. It summarizes the understanding of microstructure evolution and fracture behavior during thermomechanical processing of the...
Abstract
This article reviews the bulk deformation processes for various aluminide and silicide intermetallic alloys with emphasis on the gamma titanium aluminide alloys. It summarizes the understanding of microstructure evolution and fracture behavior during thermomechanical processing of the gamma aluminides with particular reference to production scaleable techniques, including vacuum arc and cold-hearth melting, isothermal forging, conventional hot forging, and extrusion. The selection and design of manufacturing methods, in the context of processing-cost trade-offs for gamma titanium aluminide alloys, are also discussed.
Book: Corrosion: Materials
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13b.a0003836
EISBN: 978-1-62708-183-2
... the general corrosion behavior and localized corrosion behavior of transition metal-metal binary alloys, transition metal-metalloid alloys, and amorphous simple metal-transition metal-rare earth metal alloys. It concludes with a discussion on the environmentally induced fracture of glassy alloys...
Abstract
This article illustrates the three techniques for producing glassy metals, namely, liquid phase quenching, atomic or molecular deposition, and external action technique. Devitrification of an amorphous alloy can proceed by several routes, including primary crystallization, eutectoid crystallization, and polymorphous crystallization. The article demonstrates a free-energy versus composition diagram that summarizes many of the devitrification routes. It provides a historical review of the corrosion behavior of fully amorphous and partially devitrified metallic glasses. The article describes the general corrosion behavior and localized corrosion behavior of transition metal-metal binary alloys, transition metal-metalloid alloys, and amorphous simple metal-transition metal-rare earth metal alloys. It concludes with a discussion on the environmentally induced fracture of glassy alloys, including hydrogen embrittlement and stress-corrosion cracking.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004020
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... Abstract The constitutive relations for metalworking include elements of behavior at ambient temperature as well as high-temperature response. This article presents equations for strain hardening and strain-rate-sensitive flow, with alternate sections on empirically determined properties...
Abstract
The constitutive relations for metalworking include elements of behavior at ambient temperature as well as high-temperature response. This article presents equations for strain hardening and strain-rate-sensitive flow, with alternate sections on empirically determined properties, followed by the models of constitutive behavior. It provides a discussion on creep mechanisms involving dislocation and diffusional flow, such as the Nabarro-Herring creep and the Coble creep. The equations for the several creep rates are also presented. Research on the mechanism of the superplastic flow in fine-grain metals has encompassed many ideas, such as the diffusional creep, dislocation creep with diffusional accommodation at grain boundaries, and concepts of grain-mantle deformation. The article concludes with information on the kinetics of superplastic deformation processes, including low stress behavior, concurrent grain growth, and high stress behavior.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 22A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2009
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v22a.a0005413
EISBN: 978-1-62708-196-2
... Abstract This article focuses on the analyzing and modeling of stress-strain behavior of polycrystals of pure face-centered cubic (fcc) metals in the range of temperatures and strain rates where diffusion is not important. It presents a phenomenological description of stress-strain behavior and...
Abstract
This article focuses on the analyzing and modeling of stress-strain behavior of polycrystals of pure face-centered cubic (fcc) metals in the range of temperatures and strain rates where diffusion is not important. It presents a phenomenological description of stress-strain behavior and provides information on the physical background, alternative interpretations, and directions of research. The quantitative description of strain hardening of fcc polycrystals is provided. The article also discusses the modeling of stress-strain behavior in body-centered cubic metals, hexagonal metals, stage IV work hardening, and the various classes of single-phase alloys.
Book: Corrosion: Materials
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13b.a0003816
EISBN: 978-1-62708-183-2
... describes the corrosion behavior of copper alloys in specific environments. It reviews the corrosion characteristics of copper and copper alloys in various acids, alkalis, salts, organic compounds, and gases. The article provides information on the behavior of copper alloys that is susceptible to stress...
Abstract
This article discusses the identifying characteristics of the forms or mechanisms of corrosion that commonly attack copper metals, as well as the most effective means of combating each. It tabulates corrosion ratings of wrought copper alloys in various corrosive media. The article describes the corrosion behavior of copper alloys in specific environments. It reviews the corrosion characteristics of copper and copper alloys in various acids, alkalis, salts, organic compounds, and gases. The article provides information on the behavior of copper alloys that is susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking in various industrial and chemical environments. It concludes with a discussion on various corrosion testing methods, including aqueous corrosion testing, dynamic corrosion tests, and stress-corrosion testing.
Book: Corrosion: Materials
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13b.a0003821
EISBN: 978-1-62708-183-2
... Abstract This article reviews the corrosion behavior in various environments for seven important nickel alloy families: commercially pure nickel, Ni-Cu, Ni-Mo, Ni-Cr, Ni-Cr-Mo, Ni-Cr-Fe, and Ni-Fe-Cr. It examines the behavior of nickel alloys in corrosive media found in industrial settings. The...
Abstract
This article reviews the corrosion behavior in various environments for seven important nickel alloy families: commercially pure nickel, Ni-Cu, Ni-Mo, Ni-Cr, Ni-Cr-Mo, Ni-Cr-Fe, and Ni-Fe-Cr. It examines the behavior of nickel alloys in corrosive media found in industrial settings. The corrosive media include: hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, hydrofluoric acid, hydrobromic acid, nitric acid, organic acids, salts, seawater, and alkalis. The modes of high-temperature corrosion include oxidation, carburization, metal dusting, sulfidation, nitridation, corrosion by halogens, and corrosion by molten salts. Applications where the corrosion properties of nickel alloys are important factors in materials selection include the petroleum, chemical, and electrical power industries. Most nickel alloys are much more resistant than the stainless steels to reducing acids, such as hydrochloric, and some are extremely resistant to the chloride-induced phenomena of pitting, crevice attack, and stress-corrosion cracking (to which the stainless steels are susceptible). Nickel alloys are also among the few metallic materials able to cope with hot hydrofluoric acid. The conditions where nickel alloys suffer environmentally assisted cracking are highly specific and therefore avoidable by proper design of the industrial components.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006780
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... with K in less ductile materials. Source: Ref 19 The principal metallurgical factor in stress-rupture behavior is the transition from low-temperature TG fracture to high-temperature...
Abstract
The principal types of elevated-temperature mechanical failure are creep and stress rupture, stress relaxation, low- and high-cycle fatigue, thermal fatigue, tension overload, and combinations of these, as modified by environment. This article briefly reviews the applied aspects of creep-related failures, where the mechanical strength of a material becomes limited by creep rather than by its elastic limit. The majority of information provided is applicable to metallic materials, and only general information regarding creep-related failures of polymeric materials is given. The article also reviews various factors related to creep behavior and associated failures of materials used in high-temperature applications. The complex effects of creep-fatigue interaction, microstructural changes during classical creep, and nondestructive creep damage assessment of metallic materials are also discussed. The article describes the fracture characteristics of stress rupture. Information on various metallurgical instabilities is also provided. The article presents a description of thermal-fatigue cracks, as distinguished from creep-rupture cracks.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004002
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... on the modeling of behavior of specific alloy systems, with a comparison of experimental results to the modeling attempts. It concludes with information on the properties of deformation-processed DRA alloys. aluminum-base alloy casting ceramic particles discontinuously reinforced aluminum...
Abstract
Discontinuously reinforced aluminum (DRA) alloy metal-matrix composites (MMCs) represent an advanced aluminum materials concept whereby ceramic particles, or whiskers, are added to aluminum-base alloys through the use of either ingot-melting or casting and/or powder-metallurgy (P/M) techniques. This article begins with a summary of general observations on the forging of discontinuously reinforced composites. It provides information on some of the specific experimental results obtained on various DRA systems, including 2xxx DRA alloys and cast DRA alloys. The article reviews the efforts on the modeling of behavior of specific alloy systems, with a comparison of experimental results to the modeling attempts. It concludes with information on the properties of deformation-processed DRA alloys.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003143
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
..., precautions in use, and general corrosion behavior of each. The applications of titanium alloys include aerospace, gas turbine engines and prostheses. Further, the article graphically presents a comparative study of fatigue, creep and tensile properties of various titanium alloys. aerospace applications...
Abstract
This article is a comprehensive collection of properties, compositions, and applications of standard grades of titanium and selected titanium alloys. It provides data regarding the common names, Unified Number System numbers, composition limits, typical uses with service temperatures, precautions in use, and general corrosion behavior of each. The applications of titanium alloys include aerospace, gas turbine engines and prostheses. Further, the article graphically presents a comparative study of fatigue, creep and tensile properties of various titanium alloys.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0009010
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... and Brittle Fracture in Metals” Failure Analysis and Prevention , Volume 11 of the ASM Handbook (2002, p 587–626). The work of Nicolaou et al. ( Ref 33 ) also shed light on the effect of cavitation on stress-strain behavior. Engineering stress-strain ( S - e ) curves for a range of...
Abstract
This article discusses two types of hot-tension tests, namely, the Gleeble test and conventional isothermal hot-tension test, as well as their equipment. It summarizes the data for hot ductility, strength, and hot-tension for commercial alloys. The article presents isothermal hot-tension test data, which helps to gain information on a number of material parameters and material coefficients. It details the effect of test conditions on flow behavior. The article briefly describes the detailed interpretation of data from the isothermal hot-tension test using numerical model. It also explains the cavitation mechanism and failure modes that occur during hot-tension testing.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006676
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... Abstract Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) is a powerful tool for studying the viscoelastic properties and behavior of a range of materials as a function of time, temperature, and frequency. This article describes various systems and equipment used in DMA setup and discusses the processes...
Abstract
Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) is a powerful tool for studying the viscoelastic properties and behavior of a range of materials as a function of time, temperature, and frequency. This article describes various systems and equipment used in DMA setup and discusses the processes involved in preparation of test specimen for DMA measurements. Some factors to be considered when calibrating the DMA instrument are provided, along with a description on processes for interpreting the temperature and frequency dependence of DMA curves as well as the applications of DMA.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006773
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... applied to the component. Second, as the temperature of the component changes it will either expand or contract depending on the temperature profile and the thermal-expansion behavior of the material. Finally, the mechanical properties of the material, such as the elastic modulus or fracture toughness...
Abstract
When complex designs, transient loadings, and nonlinear material behavior must be evaluated, computer-based techniques are used. This is where the finite-element analysis (FEA) is most applicable and provides considerable assistance in design analysis as well as failure analysis. This article provides a general view on the applicability of finite-element modeling in conducting analyses of failed components. It highlights the uses of finite-element modeling in the area of failure analysis and design, with emphasis on structural analysis. The discussion covers the general development and both general- and special-purpose applications of FEA. The special-purpose applications of FEA covered are piping and pressure vessel analysis, impact analysis, and microelectronic and microelectromechanical systems analysis. The article provides case histories that involved the use of FEA in failure analysis.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003187
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... that the basic mechanism of chip formation is shear deformation, which is controlled by work material properties such as yield strength, shear strength, friction behavior, hardness, and ductility. It describes various chip types, as well as the cutting parameters that influence chip formation. It also...
Abstract
Fundamental to the machining process, is the metal-cutting operation, which involves extensive plastic deformation of the work piece ahead of the tool tip, high temperatures, and severe frictional conditions at the interfaces of the tool, chip, and work piece. This article explains that the basic mechanism of chip formation is shear deformation, which is controlled by work material properties such as yield strength, shear strength, friction behavior, hardness, and ductility. It describes various chip types, as well as the cutting parameters that influence chip formation. It also demonstrates how the service life of cutting tools is determined by a number of wear processes, including tool wear, machining parameters, and tool force and power requirements. It concludes by presenting a comprehensive collection of formulas for turning, milling, drilling, and broaching, and its average unit power requirement.