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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 8
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v08.a0009214
EISBN: 978-1-62708-176-4
... the experimenter varies the parameters, or factors, under study and then observes the effects of this action. These include factorial experiments, blocked factorial experiments, and fractional factorial experiments. The article describes the estimation of experimental errors and provides information on randomized...
Abstract
Planning of experiments does not consist merely of identifying a few key parameters and then selecting a specific plan. Selection of the proper experimental plan depends on the purpose of the experiment, physical restrictions on the taking of measurements, and other restrictions imposed by time, economic considerations, and materials and personnel availability. This article presents recommendations that should be followed in outlining the methods of conducting and analyzing an experiment to ensure successful results. It discusses restricted type of experiments, in which the experimenter varies the parameters, or factors, under study and then observes the effects of this action. These include factorial experiments, blocked factorial experiments, and fractional factorial experiments. The article describes the estimation of experimental errors and provides information on randomized designs and block designs. It also presents the methods for determining optimum conditions or levels.
Book Chapter
Analysis of Designed Experiments
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 8
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v08.a0009215
EISBN: 978-1-62708-176-4
... Abstract This article describes methods that are oriented toward the analysis of planned cooperative experiments that involve multiple factors, blocks, and/or treatment levels. The experiments include factorial, fractional factorial, randomized block, and incomplete block experiments...
Abstract
This article describes methods that are oriented toward the analysis of planned cooperative experiments that involve multiple factors, blocks, and/or treatment levels. The experiments include factorial, fractional factorial, randomized block, and incomplete block experiments.
Book Chapter
Uncertainty Management in Materials Design and Analysis
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 22B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2010
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v22b.a0005534
EISBN: 978-1-62708-197-9
... that influence the accuracy of the results. A design of experiments (DOE) represents a sequence of experiments to be performed, expressed in terms of factors set at specified levels. The article discusses the two types of DOEs: the full factorial design and the fractional factorial design. It explains...
Abstract
This article presents an approach to manage the uncertainty present in materials design. It describes inductive and deductive approaches to deal with uncertainty. The article focuses on providing an understanding of the opportunities for managing uncertainty and the decisions that influence the accuracy of the results. A design of experiments (DOE) represents a sequence of experiments to be performed, expressed in terms of factors set at specified levels. The article discusses the two types of DOEs: the full factorial design and the fractional factorial design. It explains the factors to be considered when selecting a procedure for propagating uncertainty. The article lists the categories of the popular types of uncertainty propagation methods, including simulation-based methods, local expansion methods, and numerical integration-based methods.
Book Chapter
Designing, Planning, and Preparing Corrosion Tests
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2003
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13a.a0003640
EISBN: 978-1-62708-182-5
..., metal composition and metallurgical conditions, test specimen preparation, and corrosion damage assessment. It describes a strategy for planning the design of controlled and uncontrolled factorial experiments. The article contains a table that lists the elements of an iterative process...
Abstract
When planning a corrosion-testing program, it is advisable to select the testing conditions carefully in order to produce ranking parameters with minimal influence from testing conditions while rich in engineering significance. This article provides a discussion on test objectives, metal composition and metallurgical conditions, test specimen preparation, and corrosion damage assessment. It describes a strategy for planning the design of controlled and uncontrolled factorial experiments. The article contains a table that lists the elements of an iterative process for the experimental design. It illustrates the experimental designs applied to corrosion testing.
Book Chapter
Process Optimization
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 24A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 June 2023
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v24A.a0006994
EISBN: 978-1-62708-439-0
..., it is assumed that phase one of the optimization problem has already been completed and that phase two, or response objective optimization, is occurring. Parametric studies were conducted in AM using the design-of-experiment methods that included full factorial design, Taguchi, partial factorial design...
Abstract
Process optimization is the discipline of adjusting a process to optimize a specified set of parameters without violating engineering constraints. This article reviews data-driven optimization methods based on genetic algorithms and stochastic models and demonstrates their use in powder-bed fusion and directed energy deposition processes. In the latter case, closed-loop feedback is used to control melt pool temperature and cooling rate in order to achieve desired microstructure.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0009013
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... in this article). A simple, yet effective, technique is called factorial design of experiments. Often, the process parameters that can affect the quality of the product are known, but the relative importance is not clear. A sensitivity analysis is then needed, and factorial design of experiments aids...
Abstract
Thermomechanical are used to gain insight into the causes of problems that arise during a given thermomechanical process. This article provides examples to demonstrate how significant the parameters were selected for specific tests. It examines the types of problems that can occur during a thermomechanical process. The article provides information on the thermophysical properties, which include specific heat, coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity/diffusivity, and density. It concludes with examples that illustrate how the various considerations in testing are successfully used to solve practical thermomechanical processing problems.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14b.a0005152
EISBN: 978-1-62708-186-3
..., and experimental design, including single-variable studies, multivariable studies, and Taguchi experiments. control charts sheet metal forming statistical process control statistics STATISTICS are extremely important tools in the operation of press shops, providing numerical process analysis...
Abstract
Statistics are extremely important tools in the operation of press shops, providing numerical process analysis capabilities. The most common use of statistics in the press shop is statistical process control (SPC) that uses statistical techniques such as control charts to analyze a process or its output to enable appropriate actions to be taken to achieve and maintain a state of statistical control. This article discusses the role of statistics in sheet metal forming operations, both in terms of SPC techniques, such as control charting, statistical deformation control, and experimental design, including single-variable studies, multivariable studies, and Taguchi experiments.
Book Chapter
Semisolid Casting—Introduction and Fundamentals
Available to PurchaseBook: Casting
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 15
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005272
EISBN: 978-1-62708-187-0
... slurry (typically, 50% liquid/50% solid instead of fully liquid metal) is injected into a die cavity to form a die-cast type of component. The origin of SSM can be traced to experiments conducted by David Spencer at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1971 as part of his doctoral thesis...
Abstract
Semisolid metal (SSM) processing, also known as semisolid metal casting, semisolid forming, or semisolid metal forging, is a special die casting process. This article discusses the origin and advantages of the SSM processing. It describes three major semisolid processing routes: thixocasting, rheocasting, and thixomolding.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 20
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1997
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v20.a0002429
EISBN: 978-1-62708-194-8
... and the flattening-process inventor) went to a production rolling mill (factory) to plan production trials, they were rebuffed. “Run armor plate through our rolling mill—no way!” The mill operators were of course accustomed to rolling soft steel. Armor plate seemed out of bounds to them. The production-operations...
Abstract
Concurrent engineering is product development that is done by concurrently utilizing all of the relevant information in making each decision. This article discusses the three aspects that must be taken into account for all product development decisions. The aspects include product functionality, production capability, and field-support capability. The concurrent process is carried out by a multifunctional team that integrates the specialties. The article schematically illustrates product design team configurations with subsystem teams and team of subsystem leaders. It discusses the three-step decision-making process, such as requirements, concepts, and improvement, followed by multifunctional product development teams. The article describes the two types of requirements development by multifunctional teams, namely, quality function deployment and functional analysis. It schematically illustrates the integration of product requirements and concept development. The article concludes with a discussion on the improvement of concepts in terms of robust design and mistake minimization.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 20
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1997
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v20.a0002432
EISBN: 978-1-62708-194-8
... because there is no indication of any effect of interaction between two or more factors. Factorial experiments can be used to estimate the main (direct) effect of each “stress,” interactions between two (or more) stresses, and experimental error ( Ref 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 ). Related information...
Abstract
Reliability is a measure of the capacity of equipment or systems to operate without failure in the service environment. This article focuses on reliability in design and presents equations governing the instantaneous failure rate, general reliability function, mean time to failure, mean time between failures, and useful life period. The article describes the calculation of reliabilities for series and parallel arrangements of a complex system. It provides a comparison of probabilistic and deterministic design and concludes with a discussion on reliability growth.
Book Chapter
Design Optimization for Dies and Preforms
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004022
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... of variance (ANOVA) with orthogonal arrays (OAs) may be used to rank the importance of independent variables—OAs are used for design of a fractional factorial experiment (FFE). Analysis of variance finds the ability of each variable to change the outcome within the FFE. It is not unusual to find that 80...
Abstract
For forming processes, optimization goals range from tuning the process parameters while keeping geometry unchanged to finding optimal geometry for intermediate dies in a multistage forming operation. This article commences with a description on the three salient steps of optimization procedures: defining the objective function, calculating the objective function, and searching an optimum design. It concludes with an example illustrating the optimization of conical-die extrusion.
Book Chapter
Introduction to Coating Design and Processing
Available to PurchaseBook: Thermal Spray Technology
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2013
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05a.a0005725
EISBN: 978-1-62708-171-9
... coatings are fabricated by combining equipment (spray guns, process controls, manipulators, etc.), feedstock materials (powders, wires, or rods), and engineering and process know-how (experience). Only when all components of the spray process are used correctly does a well-designed coating result...
Abstract
This article begins with a description of the advantages and disadvantages of thermal spraying. It provides a discussion on the importance of substrate processing prior to coating and the role of undercutting in repair. The article reviews the steps for substrate preparation, namely, cleaning, roughening, masking, and preheating. Information on the equipment and process variables of dry abrasive grit blasting are also provided. The article describes the roles of spray stream and the spray pattern for all thermal spray processes. It discusses the defects arising from poor temperature control and from the variables influencing the manipulation of the spray torch. The article concludes with helpful information on calculating the process efficiency of thermal spraying.
Book Chapter
Analysis Methods for Probabilistic Life Assessment
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006803
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... is the resulting fitted distribution using a normal assumption. Fig. 1 First sample of ten experiments The process of fitting consists of taking the observations and estimating the parameters of a selected named distribution via a chosen method (such as least squares, moment matching, maximum...
Abstract
This article provides an outline of the issues to consider in performing a probabilistic life assessment. It begins with an historical background and introduces the most common methods. The article then describes those methods covering subjects such as the required random variable definitions, how uncertainty is quantified, and input for the associated random variables, as well as the characterization of the response uncertainty. Next, it focuses on specific and generic uncertainty propagation techniques: first- and second-order reliability methods, the response surface method, and the most frequently used simulation methods, standard Monte Carlo sampling, Latin hypercube sampling, and discrete probability distribution sampling. Further, the article discusses methods developed to analyze the results of probabilistic methods and covers the use of epistemic and aleatory sampling as well as several statistical techniques. Finally, it illustrates some of the techniques with application problems for which probabilistic analysis is an essential element.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1986
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0001732
EISBN: 978-1-62708-178-8
... with highly overlapping spectra often vary greatly ( Table 6 ). Other fluorescence experiments involving selective quenching and polarization measurements can also be useful for qualitative purposes. Approximate excitation and emission maxima and fluorescence lifetimes for molecules with overlapping...
Abstract
This article provides an introduction to the molecular fluorescence spectroscopy, and discusses the theory of fluorescence and its application to chemical analysis. It provides information on fluorescence that occurs in organic compounds and inorganic atoms and molecules. The article describes the instruments used in the spectroscopy, namely, radiation sources, sample holders, wavelength selectors, detectors, computers, and ratiometric instruments. The practical considerations include solvent effects, corrected spectra, wavelength calibration, temperature, and scattered light. The article also discusses the uses of some special techniques used in molecular fluorescence spectroscopy.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 20
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1997
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v20.a0002435
EISBN: 978-1-62708-194-8
... the evaluation of the product or process with respect to robustness against noise and the related costs. The engineer will typically only run a fraction of the total experiments possible for the various parameters at their various levels. Factors that exhibit consistent effects, no matter how many different...
Abstract
This article addresses problems, such as “in spec” dilemma and on-target key, associated with traditional approaches to quality. It discusses major robust design techniques, tools, and concepts, such as quality loss function, parameter design, tolerance design, signal-to-noise ratio, technology development, and orthogonal arrays.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001256
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... of the anodes (usually 85Sn-15Pb for high-speed plating). Solution temperature and degree of agitation affect composition, especially in high-speed solutions. Multivariable fractional factorial experiments have shown that the 80Sn-20Pb (80/20) coating has a slightly higher solderability quality than 90/10...
Abstract
Electrodeposition of tin alloys is used to protect steel against corrosion or wear, to impart resistance to etching, and to facilitate soldering. This article focuses on the compositions, operating conditions, advantages, and limitations of methane sulfonic acid plating solutions and fluoborate plating solutions for tin-lead. It briefly describes the solution compositions and operating conditions of tin-bismuth, tin-nickel, and tin-zinc.
Book Chapter
Synchrotron X-Ray Diffraction Applications
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006654
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... of an x-ray source is not only related to the total flux of photons it emits but is also dependent on the angular divergence of the radiation. Inside a laboratory x-ray tube, x-rays are generated in all directions from the metal anode, and only a small fraction come through the beryllium window...
Abstract
This article discusses the techniques and applications of synchrotron x-ray diffraction, providing information on x-ray generation, monochromation, and crystallography. X-ray diffraction techniques covered include single-crystal and powder diffraction. Some of the factors involved in the construction and development of macromolecular x-ray crystallography are also described.
Book Chapter
Characterization of Heat Transfer during Quenching
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2013
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04a.a0005814
EISBN: 978-1-62708-165-8
... for gears was presented by Lim ( Ref 5 ). To reduce the number of experiments required, he used a factorial design to design the experimental matrix. The empirical methodology provides very little insight into the phenomena that occur during the process, because it usually considers only the initial...
Abstract
This article describes the mechanisms and characteristics of heat transfer in the quenching of steel. This article describes the characterization of boiling heat transfer, including pool boiling, forced convective boiling, and rewetting, which plays a key role in defining the heat-extraction characteristics of a liquid quenchant. It provides information on heat generated microstructural field evolution and information on the analysis and characterization of heat transfer boundary conditions.
Book Chapter
Design Factors
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003088
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
.... Univariate testing (one parameter at a time) for environmental factors is not always useful because there is no indication of any effect of interaction between two or more factors. Factorial experiments can be used to estimate the main (direct) effect of each “stress,” interactions between two (or more...
Abstract
This article describes design factors for products used in engineering applications. The article groups these factors into three categories: functional requirements, analysis of total life cycle, and other major factors. These categories intersect and overlap, constituting a major challenge in engineering design. Performance specifications, risk and hazard analysis, design process, design for manufacture and assembly, design for quality, reliability in design, and redesign are considered for functional requirements. Life-cycle analysis considers raw-material extraction from the earth and product manufacture, use, recycling (including design for recycling), and disposal. The other major factors considered include evaluation of the current state of the art for a given design, designing to codes and standards, and human factors/ergonomics.
Book Chapter
Introduction to Composites
Available to PurchaseBook: Composites
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 21
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2001
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v21.a0003350
EISBN: 978-1-62708-195-5
... are included in this category), as depicted in Fig. 1 ( Ref 1 ). In order to provide a useful increase in properties, there generally must be a substantial volume fraction (∼10% or more) of the reinforcement. A reinforcement is considered to be a “particle” if all of its dimensions are roughly equal. Thus...
Abstract
This article begins with a brief history of composite materials and discusses its characteristics. It presents an introduction to the constituents, product forms, and fabrication processes of composite materials. The article concludes with a discussion on the applications of organic-matrix, metal-matrix, and ceramic-matrix composites.
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