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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004017
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... workability tests, such as the tension test, ring compression test, plane-strain compression test, bend test, indentation test, and forgeability test. It concludes with information on the role of the finite-element modeling software used in workability analysis. bend test bulk forming processes...
Abstract
This article focuses on the factors that determine the extent of deformation a metal can withstand before cracking or fracture occurs. It informs that workability depends on the local conditions of stress, strain, strain rate, and temperature in combination with material factors. The article discusses the common testing techniques and process variables for workability prediction. It illustrates the simple and most widely used fracture criterion proposed by Cockcroft and Latham and provides a workability analysis using the fracture limit line. The article describes various workability tests, such as the tension test, ring compression test, plane-strain compression test, bend test, indentation test, and forgeability test. It concludes with information on the role of the finite-element modeling software used in workability analysis.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0009005
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
...Abstract Abstract Workability in forging depends on a variety of material, process-variable, and die-design features. A number of test techniques have been developed for gaging forgeability depending on alloy type, microstructure, die geometry, and process variables. This article summarizes...
Abstract
Workability in forging depends on a variety of material, process-variable, and die-design features. A number of test techniques have been developed for gaging forgeability depending on alloy type, microstructure, die geometry, and process variables. This article summarizes some common workability tests and illustrates their application in practical forging situations. Workability tests for open-die forging of cast structures, hot and cold open-die forging of recrystallized structures, fracture-controlled defect formation, establishing effects of process variables and secondary tensile stresses on forgeability, and flow-localization-controlled failure are some common tests. The workability test used for closed-die forging is also summarized.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1990
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v01.a0001032
EISBN: 978-1-62708-161-0
.... 6 Specimen for the wedge-forging test. (a) as-machined specimen. (b) Specimen after forging Fig. 7 Suggested rating system for notched-bar upset test specimens that exhibit progressively poorer forgeability. A rating of 0 indicates freedom from ruptures in the notched area. Fig...
Abstract
This article discusses the bulk formability or workability of steels. It describes their formability characteristics and presents procedures for various formability tests used for carbon and alloy steels. Tests for bulk formability can be divided into two main categories: primary tests and specialized tests. The article compares the processing of microalloyed plate and bar products. The article focuses on the use of torsion testing to evaluate the forgeability of carbon and alloy steels and presents information on measuring flow stress. The article discusses the metallurgy and thermomechanical processing of high-strength low-alloy (microalloyed) steels and the various parts of the rolling operation. The article summarizes some of the common tests for determining formability in open-die and closed-die forgings.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1990
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v01.a0001046
EISBN: 978-1-62708-161-0
.... The selection of stainless steels may be based on corrosion resistance, fabrication characteristics, availability, mechanical properties in specific temperature ranges and product cost. The fabrication characteristics of stainless steels include formability, forgeability, machinability, and weldability...
Abstract
This article discusses the composition, characteristics, and properties of the five groups of wrought stainless steels: martensitic stainless steels, ferritic stainless steels, austenitic stainless steels, duplex stainless steels, and precipitation-hardening stainless steels. The selection of stainless steels may be based on corrosion resistance, fabrication characteristics, availability, mechanical properties in specific temperature ranges and product cost. The fabrication characteristics of stainless steels include formability, forgeability, machinability, and weldability. The product forms of wrought stainless steels are plate, sheet, strip, foil, bar, wire, semifinished products, pipes, tubes, and tubing. The article describes tensile properties, elevated-temperature properties, subzero-temperature properties, physical properties, corrosion properties, and fatigue strength of stainless steels. It characterizes the experience of a few industrial sectors according to the corrosion problems most frequently encountered and suggests appropriate grade selections. Corrosion testing, surface finishing, mill finishes, and interim surface protection of stainless steels are also discussed.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 8
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v08.a0003258
EISBN: 978-1-62708-176-4
... with limited forgeability. Plane-Strain Compression Test The purpose of this test is basically to determine the yield stress of the material under plane-strain conditions. The results are used to calculate the forces required in processes such as rolling of wide sheet and some regions of the workpiece...
Abstract
An important activity in metalworking facilities is the testing of raw materials for characteristics that ensure the integrity and quality of the products made. This article reviews the common material parameters that can have a direct or indirect influence on workability and product quality. These include strength, ductility, hardness, strain-hardening exponent, strain-rate effects, temperature effects, and hydrostatic pressure effects. The article also reviews the material behavior characteristics typically determined by mechanical testing methods. It discusses various mechanical testing methods, including the tension test, plane-strain tension test, compression test, plane-strain compression test, partial-width indentation test, and torsion test. Aspects of testing particularly relevant to workability and quality control for metalworking processes are also described. Finally, the article details the various factors influencing workability in bulk deformation processes and formability in sheet-metal forming.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003991
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
.... With the exception of the free-machining grades and hot shortness due to residual elements in the steel like copper, forgeability aspects rarely limit hot forging of carbon and alloy steels into intricate shapes. Workability or, in this case, forgeability, is evaluated in several ways from various types of tests...
Abstract
This article focuses on the forging behavior and practices of carbon and alloy steels. It presents general guidelines for forging in terms of practices, steel selection, forgeability and mechanical properties, heat treatments of steel forgings, die design features, and machining. The article discusses the effect of forging on final component properties and presents special considerations for the design of hot upset forgings.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003184
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... support is needed for those portions of a less forgeable material that are normally exposed to the tensile and shear stresses. The forgeability of metals at various temperatures can be evaluated by using such tests as torsion, tension, and compression tests. In all of these tests, the amount...
Abstract
This article reviews specific processing characteristics and forging-related properties of commonly forged families of metals and alloys, including carbon and alloy steels, stainless steels, heat-resistant alloys (iron, cobalt, and nickel base alloys), aluminum alloys, copper and copper alloys, magnesium alloys, and titanium alloys. It provides forging process variables such as stock preparation, heating and cooling of forgings, die lubrication, trimming, and cleaning of these metals and alloys. The article explains the effect of temperature, deformation rate, and die temperature on forgeability and describes the forging methods of these metals and alloys.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003979
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... by using such tests as torsion, tension, and compression tests. In all of these tests, the amount of deformation prior to failure of the specimen is an indication of forgeability at the temperature and deformation rate used during that particular test. Friction and Lubrication in Forging In forging...
Abstract
This article provides an overview of the capabilities of closed-die forging. One of the most important aspects of closed-die forging is proper design of preforming operations and of blocker dies to achieve adequate metal distribution. The article describes the effects of friction and lubrication in forging. It discusses the types of closed-die forgings, namely, blocker-type, conventional, and close-tolerance. The article illustrates the classification of forging shapes and explains how to predict the forging pressure and the control of die temperature during closed-die forging. It explains the use of heating equipment for closed-die forging and tabulates the maximum safe forging temperatures for carbon and alloy steels. The article concludes with a discussion on a trimming method used for closed-die forgings.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003993
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
.... The use of CAD, manufacture, and engineering also is particularly significant in the forging of heat-resistant alloys because of the premium placed on higher quality and lower cost. On one hand, the thrust of alloy development has been to increase the service temperature, which means lower forgeability...
Abstract
This article provides a discussion on forging methods, melting procedures, forging equipment, forging practices, grain refinement, and critical factors considered in forging process. It describes the different types of solid-solution-strengthened and precipitation-strengthened superalloys, namely, iron-nickel superalloys, nickel-base alloys, cobalt-base alloys, and powder alloys. The article discusses the microstructural mechanisms during hot deformation and presents processing maps for various superalloys. It concludes with a discussion on heat treatment of wrought heat-resistant alloy forgings.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003992
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... of the forgeability of austenitic stainless steels, martensitic stainless steels, precipitation-hardening stainless steels, and ferritic stainless steels. It concludes with a discussion on the heating and lubrication of dies. austenitic stainless steel cleaning dies ferritic stainless steel forgeability...
Abstract
Stainless steels, based on forging pressure and load requirements, are more difficult to forge because of the greater strength at elevated temperatures and the limitations on the maximum temperatures at which stainless steels can be forged without incurring microstructural damage. This article discusses the forging methods, primary mill practices (primary forging and ingot breakdown), trimming, and cleaning operations of stainless steels. It describes the use of forging equipment, dies, and die material in the forging operation. The article provides an overview of the forgeability of austenitic stainless steels, martensitic stainless steels, precipitation-hardening stainless steels, and ferritic stainless steels. It concludes with a discussion on the heating and lubrication of dies.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004002
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... on the overall forgeability of the composite at elevated temperatures. Fig. 2 Forging limit-diagrams of 6061 DRA and 2014 DRA tested at a strain rate of 0.5/s and 400 °C (750 °F). Source: Ref 23 Much less work has been conducted on cold forming/forging, due to the more limited ductility...
Abstract
Discontinuously reinforced aluminum (DRA) alloy metal-matrix composites (MMCs) represent an advanced aluminum materials concept whereby ceramic particles, or whiskers, are added to aluminum-base alloys through the use of either ingot-melting or casting and/or powder-metallurgy (P/M) techniques. This article begins with a summary of general observations on the forging of discontinuously reinforced composites. It provides information on some of the specific experimental results obtained on various DRA systems, including 2xxx DRA alloys and cast DRA alloys. The article reviews the efforts on the modeling of behavior of specific alloy systems, with a comparison of experimental results to the modeling attempts. It concludes with information on the properties of deformation-processed DRA alloys.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003996
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
...Abstract Abstract This article begins with discussion on forgeability and the factors affecting the forgeability of aluminum and aluminum alloys. It describes the types of forging methods and equipment and reviews critical elements in the overall aluminum forging process: die materials, die...
Abstract
This article begins with discussion on forgeability and the factors affecting the forgeability of aluminum and aluminum alloys. It describes the types of forging methods and equipment and reviews critical elements in the overall aluminum forging process: die materials, die design, and die manufacture. The article discusses the critical aspects of various manufacturing elements of aluminum alloy forging, including the preparation of the forging stock, preheating stock, die heating, lubrication, trimming, forming and repair, cleaning, heat treatment, and inspection. It concludes with a discussion on the forging of advanced aluminum materials and aluminum alloy precision forgings.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 2A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 November 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v02a.a0006493
EISBN: 978-1-62708-207-5
... variables such as workpiece and die temperature, strain rate, and deformation mode. The article describes the relative forgeability of the ten most widely used aluminum alloys, and reviews common forging equipment, including hammers, mechanical and screw presses, and hydraulic presses. It also discusses...
Abstract
This article examines aluminum forging processes, including open-die, closed-die, upset, roll, orbital, spin, and mandrel forging, and compares and contrasts their capabilities and the associated design requirements for forged parts. It discusses the effect of key process variables such as workpiece and die temperature, strain rate, and deformation mode. The article describes the relative forgeability of the ten most widely used aluminum alloys, and reviews common forging equipment, including hammers, mechanical and screw presses, and hydraulic presses. It also discusses postforge operations such as trimming, forming, repairing, cleaning, and heat treatment.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003097
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
...Abstract Abstract Forging is the process of working hot metal between dies, usually under successive blows and sometimes by continuous squeezing. This article describes the material selection criteria, quality assurance tests for forged components, and the dimensional tolerances of closed-die...
Abstract
Forging is the process of working hot metal between dies, usually under successive blows and sometimes by continuous squeezing. This article describes the material selection criteria, quality assurance tests for forged components, and the dimensional tolerances of closed-die steel forgings. It provides an overview of the mechanical properties of wrought materials. The article also includes information on the fundamentals of hammer and press forgings and the design of hot upset forgings.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003978
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... and practice of open-die forging, with some practical examples. The article illustrates macrosegregation in a large steel ingot and lists the forgeable alloys. It reviews the physical and mathematical models used in deformation modeling. The article explains the contour forging and roll planishing process...
Abstract
Open-die forging can be distinguished from most other types of deformation processes in that it provides discontinuous material flow as opposed to continuous flow. This article describes the equipment and auxiliary tools used in open-die forging. It discusses the production and practice of open-die forging, with some practical examples. The article illustrates macrosegregation in a large steel ingot and lists the forgeable alloys. It reviews the physical and mathematical models used in deformation modeling. The article explains the contour forging and roll planishing process. It inform that to ensure that forgings can be machined to correct final measurements, it is necessary to establish allowances, tolerances, and specifications for flatness and concentricity. The article also tabulates the allowances and tolerances for as-forged shafts and bars.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003998
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... of twinning. (Note that at the high strain rates typical of forging, the effects of deformation twinning may be observed at higher temperatures than indicated by the compression test data in Fig. 2(c) measured at a typical laboratory test strain rate of 5×10 −3 s −1 ). Depending on the application...
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003138
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
...–18 12–15 … ZE10A-H24 214–248 31–36 138–172 20–25 6 … Note: Property ranges are dependent on specified thicknesses or diameters of test specimens. The most commonly used magnesium die casting alloy is AZ91D. The AZ91D alloy exhibits good mechanical and physical properties...
Abstract
Magnesium and magnesium alloys have been employed in a wide variety of structural applications because of their favorable combination of tensile strength, elastic modulus, and low density. Providing a brief section on occurrence, production, and uses of magnesium, this article describes alloy and temper designations of cast and wrought magnesium alloys. The role of mechanical properties and fabrication characteristics in selection of product forms for structural applications is covered. The article explores the use of magnesium alloys as a substitution for heavier metals such as steel and aluminum alloys to reduce weight in structural parts.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 2A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 November 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v02a.a0006488
EISBN: 978-1-62708-207-5
... vol% Al 2 O 3 tested at a strain rate of 0.5/s and 400 °C (750 °F). Source: Ref 24 The enhancement of forgeability in particulate composites involves two main factors: matrix grain size and ductility. A finer-grain matrix material forged at elevated temperatures maintains a lower flow stress...
Abstract
In general, metal-matrix composites (MMCs) are classified into three broad categories: continuous fiber-reinforced composites, discontinuous or short fiber-reinforced composites, and particle-reinforced composites. This article focuses on stir casting and melt infiltration as the two main methods of MMC solidification processing. It describes the MCC casting methods, such as sand and permanent mold casting, centrifugal casting, compocasting, and high-pressure die casting. The article discusses the MMC infiltration processes in terms of pressure infiltration casting and liquid metal infiltration. It reviews the powder metallurgy processing of aluminum MMCs and deformation processing of discontinuously reinforced aluminum composites. The article concludes with a discussion on the processing of fiber-reinforced aluminum.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4C
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 09 June 2014
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04c.a0005884
EISBN: 978-1-62708-167-2
... are also forgeable but challenging. The copper-nickel alloys have higher forging temperatures as compared to the other alloys. An interesting side note about copper alloys is that in ancient times many of the copper ores that were smelted contained arsenic and hence the copper alloys contained...
Abstract
The warm and hot working of metals provide the ability to shape important materials into component shapes that are useful in a variety of applications requiring strength, toughness, and ductility. This article focuses on a variety of metals that can be hot or warm worked, and describes the characteristics and processing considerations of each metal. It discusses forging because it is a versatile metalworking process and performed at cold, warm, and hot working temperatures. The article also presents the applications of steels, stainless steels, aluminum alloys, titanium alloys, superalloys, and copper alloys.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004038
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
.... The bearing stress is obtained by dividing the load on a pin bearing against the edge of a hole by the bearing area, where the area is the product of the pin diameter and the length of the bearing surface. (See ASTM E238 for details of this test procedure.) Working bearing stresses are lowered for joints...
Abstract
Ribs and bosses are the integral functional elements or features of a forging that project outward from a web in a direction parallel to the ram stroke. This article describes the design, functions, and producibility of ribs and bosses. It relates their design to grain flow, metallurgical structure, measurement details, and design parameters, with supplementary data obtained from the examples of actual forgings.