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James R. Varner, David L. Ahearn
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ASM International Committee on Nondestructive Testing of Composites, R.H. Bossi, D.E. Bowles, Y. Bar-Cohen, T.E. Drake ...
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S. Lampman, M. Mulherin, R. Shipley
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Iulian Riposan, Torbjorn Skaland
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Bence Bartha
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Pierre Dupont
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J.R. Davis
By
George F. Vander Voort
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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 9
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2004
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v09.a0009077
EISBN: 978-1-62708-177-1
... Abstract Analyzing the structure of composite materials is essential for understanding how the part will perform in service. Assessing fiber volume variations, void content, ply orientation variability, and foreign object inclusions helps in preventing degradation of composite performance...
Abstract
Analyzing the structure of composite materials is essential for understanding how the part will perform in service. Assessing fiber volume variations, void content, ply orientation variability, and foreign object inclusions helps in preventing degradation of composite performance. This article describes the optical microscopy and bright-field illumination techniques involved in analyzing ply terminations, prepreg plies, splices, and fiber orientation to provide the insight necessary for optimizing composite structure and performance.
Book Chapter
Fracture Modes and Appearances in Ceramics
Available to PurchaseBook: Fractography
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 12
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2024
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v12.a0006880
EISBN: 978-1-62708-387-4
... by mechanical contact of the glass surface with a sharp, hard object. Scanning electron microscope Another way to locate the fracture origin, especially in strength tests, is to make use of the overall crack pattern. This can be facilitated in bend tests by applying tape to the compression side...
Abstract
Fractography is the means and methods for characterizing a fractured specimen or component. This includes the examination of fracture-exposed surfaces and the interpretation of the fracture markings, and the examination and interpretation of crack patterns. This article deals primarily with the first of these two parts of fractography. Techniques of fractography are presented, fracture markings are explained using glass and ceramic examples, fracture modes in ceramics are discussed, and examples of fracture origins are given.
Book Chapter
Glossary of Terms: Metallography and Microstructure
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 9
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2004
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v09.a0003800
EISBN: 978-1-62708-177-1
.../asm.hb.v09.a0003800 www.asminternational.org Glossary of Terms 1-butanol. See n-butyl alcohol. chromatic aberration for two colors. See also alloy system. A complete series of compositions 2-butoxyethanol. See butyl cellosolve. achromatic objective. produced by mixing in all proportions any achromatic...
Abstract
This article is a compilation of definitions of terms related to metallography and microstructures.
Book
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 9
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2004
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v09.9781627081771
EISBN: 978-1-62708-177-1
Book Chapter
Nondestructive Testing
Available to PurchaseBook: Composites
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 21
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2001
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v21.a0003436
EISBN: 978-1-62708-195-5
... in the industry when access is limited to one side or when film-type foreign material inclusions are possible. These foreign materials have acoustic impedance very close to the composite and thus do not cause much difference in TT attenuation (less than 0.5 dB). However, these materials will generate significant...
Abstract
This article introduces the principal methodologies and some technologies that are being applied for nondestructive evaluation of composite materials. These include ultrasonic testing (UT), air-coupled UT, laser UT, ultrasonic spectroscopy, leaky lamb wave method, acousto-ultrasonics, radiography, X-ray computed tomography, thermography, low-frequency vibration methods, acoustic emission, eddy current testing, optical holography, and shearography. The article presents some examples are for fiber-reinforced polymer-matrix composites. Many of the techniques have general applicability to other types of composites such as metal-matrix composites and ceramic-matrix composites.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0001820
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... area. These metallographic sections are examined in an optical (light) microscope to determine the nature of the defect and the general features of the microstructure. When inclusions or foreign particles are present, examination in the scanning electron microscope using an energy-dispersive x-ray...
Abstract
This article describes the failure characteristics of high-pressure long-distance pipelines. It discusses the causes of pipeline failures and the procedures used to investigate them. The use of fracture mechanics in failure investigations and in developing remedial measures is also reviewed.
Book Chapter
Nondestructive Testing of Composites (Polymer- and Metal-Matrix Composites)
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006478
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
... inclusions are possible. These foreign materials have acoustic impedance very close to the composite and thus do not cause much difference in TT attenuation (less than 0.5 dB). However, these materials will generate significant reflections (20 to 30% of front wall) in PE mode. For automated PE inspection...
Abstract
This article introduces the principal methodologies and some advanced technologies that are being applied for nondestructive evaluation (NDE) of fiber-reinforced polymer-matrix composites. These include acoustic emission, ultrasonic, eddy-current, computed tomography, electromagnetic acoustic transducer, radiography, thermography, and low-frequency vibration methods. The article also provides information on NDE methods commonly used for metal-matrix composites.
Book
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.9781627081900
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0001810
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... brinelling Indentations near filling slot or other isolated area on raceway Excessive external force when assembling rolling elements Irregular indentations all over rolling elements Abrasive products or other foreign matter Flaking At isolated areas on raceway Early stage of fatigue...
Abstract
Rolling-element bearings use rolling elements interposed between two raceways, and relative motion is permitted by the rotation of these elements. This article presents an overview of bearing materials, bearing-load ratings, and an examination of failed bearings. Rolling-element bearings are designed on the principle of rolling contact rather than sliding contact; frictional effects, although low, are not negligible, and lubrication is essential. The article lists the typical characteristics and causes of several types of failures. It describes failure by wear, failure by fretting, failure by corrosion, failure by plastic flow, failure by rolling-contact fatigue, and failure by damage. The article discusses the effects of fabrication practices, heat treatment and hardness of bearing components, and lubrication of rolling-element bearings with a few examples.
Book Chapter
Radiography
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003238
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... Abstract Radiography is a nondestructive-inspection method that is based on the differential absorption of penetrating radiation by the part or test piece (object) being inspected. This article discusses the fundamentals and general applications of radiography, and describes the sources...
Abstract
Radiography is a nondestructive-inspection method that is based on the differential absorption of penetrating radiation by the part or test piece (object) being inspected. This article discusses the fundamentals and general applications of radiography, and describes the sources of radiation in radiographic inspection, including X-rays and gamma rays. It deals with the characteristics that differentiate neutron radiography from X-ray or gamma-ray radiography. The geometric principles of shadow formation, image conversion, variation of attenuation with test-piece thickness, and many other factors that govern the exposure and processing of a neutron radiograph are similar to those for radiography using X-rays or gamma rays.
Book Chapter
Principles and Procedures of Fractography
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003226
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... the fracture surface. Chemical damage to a fracture can be prevented in a number of ways, and each laboratory has its preferred method. Because the identification of foreign material present on a fracture surface may be important in the overall interpretation of the cause of fracture, many laboratories...
Abstract
Fractography is the systematic study of fractures and fracture surfaces. It is a useful tool in failure analysis and provides a means for correlating the influence of microstructure on the fracture mode of a given material. This article discusses the preservation, preparation, and photography of fractured parts and surfaces, and describes some of the more common fractographic features revealed by light microscopy, including tensile-fracture surface marks in unnotched specimens, fatigue marks, and structural discontinuities within the metal. The article also explains how to interpret fracture information contained in optical and scanning-electron microscope fractographs.
Book Chapter
Nondestructive Testing in Failure Analysis
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006764
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
.../testing—direct viewing, borescopes, video, magnifying glass, speckle metrology Visual observation of the test object surface to evaluate dimensions, color, and presence of surface discontinuities Postmanufacturing inspections, in-service inspections looking for dimensional anomalies, color variation...
Abstract
Nondestructive testing (NDT), also known as nondestructive evaluation (NDE), includes various techniques to characterize materials without damage. This article focuses on the typical NDE techniques that may be considered when conducting a failure investigation. The article begins with discussion about the concept of the probability of detection (POD), on which the statistical reliability of crack detection is based. The coverage includes the various methods of surface inspection, including visual-examination tools, scanning technology in dimensional metrology, and the common methods of detecting surface discontinuities by magnetic-particle inspection, liquid penetrant inspection, and eddy-current testing. The major NDE methods for internal (volumetric) inspection in failure analysis also are described.
Book Chapter
Failures Related to Welding
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003509
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... electron beam welds electroslag welds fatigue fitness-for-service assessment flash welds friction welding high-frequency induction welds inclusions joint design laser beam welds mechanical testing porosity upset butt welds weld discontinuity weldment failure weldment integrity WELDMENT...
Abstract
This article briefly reviews the general causes of weldment failures, which may arise from rejection after inspection or failure to pass mechanical testing as well as loss of function in service. It focuses on the general discontinuities observed in welds, and shows how some imperfections may be tolerable and how the other may be root-cause defects in service failures. The article explains the effects of joint design on weldment integrity. It outlines the origins of failure associated with the inherent discontinuity of welds and the imperfections that might be introduced from arc welding processes. The article also describes failure origins in other welding processes, such as electroslag welds, electrogas welds, flash welds, upset butt welds, flash welds, electron and laser beam weld, and high-frequency induction welds.
Book Chapter
Modification and Inoculation of Cast Iron
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 1A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 August 2017
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v01a.a0006315
EISBN: 978-1-62708-179-5
.... A certain lattice face of the foreign particle (inclusion) substrate has a certain corresponding relationship to the lattice parameter and orientation of a graphite crystal lattice. Satisfy the interfacial energy requirement between a heterogeneous nucleus and graphite: only when the foreign particles...
Abstract
This article describes the modification and inoculation of cast iron, and schematically illustrates the major effects of inoculation in gray cast irons. Inoculation could be considered as a common liquid-state treatment for all commercial cast irons (gray/compacted/ductile irons), while modification is essential to produce compacted graphite iron (intermediate level) and ductile iron. The article discusses the most important aspects of a gray cast iron inoculation treatment and the factors influencing its inoculation efficiency. It describes the modification and inoculation of ductile cast iron and compacted graphite cast iron.
Book Chapter
Nondestructive Evaluation Applications for Failure Analysis
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006758
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... or secondary cracking sites are found, the factor in allowing damage may be due to an overall degradation of the part due to manufacturing or in-service flaws rather than foreign object damage (FOD) or a single material defect issue rather than design, material process, or human factor related factors...
Abstract
The goal of using nondestructive evaluation (NDE) in conjunction with failure analysis is to obtain the most comprehensive set of data in order to characterize the details of the damage and determine the factors that allowed the damage to occur. The NDE results can be used to determine optimal areas upon which to focus for sectioning and metallography in order to further investigate the condition of the component. This article provides information on the inspection method available for failure analysis, including standard methods such as visual testing, penetrant testing, and magnetic particle testing. It covers the effects of various factors on the properties of the part that may impact failure analysis, describes the characterization of damage modes and crack sizes, and finally discusses the processes involved in application of NDE results to failure analysis.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 23
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2012
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v23.a0005685
EISBN: 978-1-62708-198-6
... and Mounting in Surface Analysis.” In general, avoid touching the sample, especially the area of interest, with bare hands. Fingers inherently have organic and inorganic compounds that can contaminate the sample. Additionally, fingers may pick up foreign material and transfer it to the sample or remove...
Abstract
This article focuses on the modes of operation, physical basis, sample requirements, properties characterized, advantages, and limitations of the characterization methods used to evaluate the physical morphology and chemical properties of component surfaces for medical devices. These methods include light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, Auger electron spectroscopy, secondary ion mass spectrometry, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and Raman spectroscopy.
Book Chapter
Nondestructive Inspection of Adhesive-Bonded Joints
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006457
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
...: No adhesive film Protective film left on adhesive Foreign objects (inclusions) In practice, these conditions must be prevented by process control and training of the personnel engaged in the bonding operation. The first two conditions occur infrequently. Shavings, chips, wires, and so on can...
Abstract
Adhesive-bonded joints are extensively used in aircraft components and assemblies where structural integrity is critical. This article addresses the problem of how to inspect bonded assemblies so that all discrepancies are identified. It describes several inspection techniques and presents drawbacks and limitations of these techniques. Generic flaw types and flaw-producing mechanisms are listed in a table. The article discusses metal-to-metal defects, adherend defects, honeycomb sandwich defects, repair defects, and in-service defects. It reviews the methods applicable to the inspection of bonded structures, including visual inspection, ultrasonic inspection, X-ray radiography, and neutron radiography. The evaluation and correlation of inspection results are also discussed. The article concludes with information on the effects of ultrasonic wave interference in the ultrasonic inspection of adhesive-bonded joints.
Book Chapter
Failures of Rolling-Element Bearings and Their Prevention
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006834
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... that the number of defects is less than a fraction of parts per million, delivering high-tech quality-engineered products at the lowest possible prices with an objective of zero defects ( Ref 1 ). Bearing Materials and Heat Treatments Steels Tables 3 to 6 give an overview of the five main REB steel...
Abstract
This article is dedicated to the fields of mechanical engineering and machine design. It also intends to give a nonexhaustive view of the preventive side of the failure analysis of rolling-element bearings (REBs) and of some of the developments in terms of materials and surface engineering. The article presents the nomenclature, numbering systems, and worldwide market of REBs as well as provides description of REBs as high-tech machine components. It discusses heat treatments, performance, and properties of bearing materials. The processes involved in the examination of failed bearings are also explained. Finally, the article discusses in detail the characteristics and prevention of the various types of failures of REBs: wear, fretting, corrosion, plastic flow, rolling-contact fatigue, and damage. The article includes an Appendix, which lists REB-related abbreviations, association websites, and ISO standards.
Book Chapter
Microstructural Characterization of Thermal Spray Coatings
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 9
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2004
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v09.a0003791
EISBN: 978-1-62708-177-1
..., the operating conditions selected, and the material being sprayed. Figure 5 is a micrograph of a thermal sprayed 80Ni-20Cr alloy coating applied with the HVOF process. The microstructure includes partially melted particles and dark oxide inclusions that are characteristic of many metallic coatings sprayed...
Abstract
This article reviews how process variations influence the characteristics of thermal spray coatings. It describes various specimen preparation techniques, which allow accurate microstructural analysis. These techniques include sectioning, cleaning, mounting, planar grinding, fine grinding, rough polishing, and etching. The article provides information on the problems associated with specimen preparation. It concludes with a discussion on the various methods of analysis for thermal spray coatings.
Book Chapter
Metallographic Practices Generally Applicable to All Metals
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003244
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... technique used should not introduce extraneous structures, such as disturbed metal, pitting, dragging out of inclusion, “comet tailing,” and staining. Polishing usually is conducted in several stages. Rough polishing generally is traditionally done with 6 or 3 μm diamond abrasive charged onto napless or low...
Abstract
This article describes the methods and equipments involved in the preparation of specimens for examination by light optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, electron microprobe analysis for microindentation hardness testing, and for quantification of microstructural parameters, either manually or by the use of image analyzers. Preparation of metallographic specimens generally requires five major operations: sectioning, mounting, grinding, chemical polishing, and etching. The article provides information on the principles of technique selection in mechanical polishing, and describes the procedures, advantages, and disadvantages of electrolytic and chemical polishing. It also provides a detailed account of procedures, precautions, and composition for preparation and handling of etchants.
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