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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14b.a0005100
EISBN: 978-1-62708-186-3
... process-related developments, namely, superplastic forming of aluminum, forming of tailor-welded blanks, rubber-pad forming, and high-velocity metal forming. The article explains cost-effective approaches of evaluating tooling designs prior to the manufacture of expensive steel dies and dieless forming...
Abstract
Sheet forming comprises deformation processes in which a metal blank is shaped by tools or dies, primarily under the action of tensile stresses. This article discusses the classification of sheet-forming processes for obtaining desired dimensional features. It describes different process-related developments, namely, superplastic forming of aluminum, forming of tailor-welded blanks, rubber-pad forming, and high-velocity metal forming. The article explains cost-effective approaches of evaluating tooling designs prior to the manufacture of expensive steel dies and dieless forming techniques such as thermal forming and peen forming. It provides information on the application of advanced high-strength steels, magnesium alloys, and various ultrafine-grain materials for superplastic sheet forming. The article concludes with information on the development and application of simulation, design, and control of sheet-forming processes.
Book Chapter
Press Brakes
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14b.a0005113
EISBN: 978-1-62708-186-3
... remain flat. Fig. 26 V-die on a press brake Channels can also be formed in a single stroke, which is not only faster but also more accurate. The drawback is that channel-forming dies are single-purpose dies, are relatively expensive, and require at least four times the tonnage of 90° air...
Abstract
Press brakes are a common and versatile type of equipment for bending metal by delivering an accurate vertical force in a confined longitudinal area. This article begins with a discussion on the design, widening methods, and types of materials used in press brakes. It focuses on the two basic drive systems used in operating press brakes, namely, mechanical and hydraulic drive systems. The article also provides an outline on the tooling associated with press-brakes.
Book Chapter
Rotary Forging
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003990
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
.... In addition, as with any forging process, higher working temperatures result in increased die wear. Dies not only wear at a faster rate but also must be fabricated from more durable, more expensive materials. Advantages and Limitations Advantages The primary advantage of rotary forging is in the low...
Abstract
Radial forging is a hot- or cold-forming process that uses two or more radially moving anvils or dies to produce solid or tubular components with constant or varying cross sections along their lengths. This article focuses on the workpiece configuration, workpiece materials, machines, dies, advantages, and limitations of radial forging. It concludes with a discussion on the applications of radial forging.
Book Chapter
Forging of Copper and Copper Alloys
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003997
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... as that required for low-carbon steel. Forging Products Copper-base forgings exhibit high strength as a result of their fibrous texture, fine grain size, and structure. They can be made to closer tolerances and with finer surface finishes than sand castings, and, while forgings are somewhat more expensive...
Abstract
This article focuses on forging processes and equipment, types of forging alloys, and the forging practices associated with the forging of copper and copper alloys. An overview of the forging tolerances for small copper-base forgings is presented in a table.
Book Chapter
Progressive Dies
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14b.a0005160
EISBN: 978-1-62708-186-3
... whether a progressive die will meet these objectives. Costs The costs involved in the use of progressive dies are frequently a decisive factor in their selection. Progressive dies, due to their complexity, are generally very expensive to build. This expense must be weighed against anticipated...
Abstract
This article discusses different factors for selecting progressive dies: costs, production volume, and press availability. It describes the purposes of strip development for a ring shaped part and presents the principles for the development of progressive dies. The article provides discussions on the general design features of progressive dies and the choice of proper auxiliary equipment such as coil feeders and scrap handling equipment. It concludes with information on different presses for progressive die work: open-back inclinable presses, four-column presses, and automatic underdrive presses.
Book Chapter
Blanking and Piercing of Electrical Steel Sheet
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14b.a0005119
EISBN: 978-1-62708-186-3
... Abstract This article discusses the presses, auxiliary equipment, and dies used in the blanking and piercing of commonly used magnetically soft materials, namely, low-carbon electrical steels and oriented and nonoriented silicon electrical steels. It describes the effect of stock thickness...
Abstract
This article discusses the presses, auxiliary equipment, and dies used in the blanking and piercing of commonly used magnetically soft materials, namely, low-carbon electrical steels and oriented and nonoriented silicon electrical steels. It describes the effect of stock thickness and work metal composition and condition on blanking and piercing. The article provides an overview of the influence of burr height on stacking factors and presents a discussion on the lubrication and core plating of electrical steels that ease the process.
Book Chapter
Isothermal and Hot-Die Forging
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003985
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... outweigh high startup and operational costs. Near-net shape processes use hydraulic presses with sophisticated controls to monitor and control strain rates. Tool steel dies are often not capable of processing temperatures for hot-die and isothermal forging, and therefore more expensive superalloys or TZM...
Abstract
Hot-die forging and isothermal forging are unique forging methods developed to forge materials that are difficult or impossible to forge by conventional means. This article presents a comparative study on hot-die forging and isothermal forging. It discusses forging parameters, process selection considerations, design guidelines, alloy types and selection, and the advantages and disadvantages of hot-die forging and isothermal forging. The article discusses the application of the finite-element analysis modeling to design.
Book Chapter
Forging Machinery, Dies, and Processes
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003183
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
..., for a 4500 kN (500 tonf) press. Because the impact is less in presses than in hammers, dies can be less massive, thus requiring less tool steel to make the dies. Cast dies can be used. Also because presses deliver a less severe impact blow, dies can be operated at higher hardness, which prolongs die life...
Abstract
Forging machines use a wide variety of hammers, presses, and dies to produce products with the desired shape, size, and geometry. This article discusses the major types of hammers (gravity-drop, power-drop, high speed, and open-die forging), and presses (mechanical, hydraulic, screw-type, and multiple-ram). It further discusses the technologies used in the design of dies, terminology, and materials selection for dies for the most common hot-forging processes, particularly those using vertical presses, hammers, and horizontal forging machines. A brief section is included on computer-aided design in the forging industry. Additionally, the article reviews specific characteristics, process limitations, advantages, and disadvantages of the most common forging processes, namely hot upset forging, roll forging, radial forging, rotary forging, isothermal and hot-die forging, precision forging, and cold forging.
Book Chapter
Thread Rolling
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004012
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... grindability is good and its wear resistance is adequate. More expensive steel such as D2, M1, and M2 are justified for long runs and for work materials that are difficult to roll. A little axial movement occurs between the work and the cylindrical dies, and it is necessary that the threaded length...
Abstract
Thread rolling is a cold-forming process for producing threads or other helical or annular forms by rolling the impression of hardened steel dies into the surface of a cylindrical or conical blank. Methods that use cylindrical dies are classified as radial infeed, tangential feed, through feed, planetary, and internal. This article focuses on the capabilities, limitations, and machines used for these methods. It describes the three characteristics, such as rollability, flaking, and seaming, used in evaluating and selecting metals for thread rolling. The article explores the factors affecting die life and explains the effect of thread form on processing. It provides information on various fluids used in thread rolling to cool the dies and the work and to improve the finish on the rolled products. The article provides a comparison between thread rolling and cutting, as well as between thread rolling and grinding.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003976
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... velocity at any time, H is the hardness of the die location, and k is a constant dependent on several factors, such as billet material and scale formation. Thermal-Fatigue Thermal-fatigue cracking is a major mode of failure of hot working tool steel dies in forging applications, and it typically...
Abstract
This article describes die wear and failure mechanisms, including thermal fatigue, abrasive wear, and plastic deformation. It summarizes the important attributes required for dies and the properties of the various die materials that make them suitable for particular applications. Recommendations on the selection of the materials for hot forging, hot extrusion, cold heading, and cold extrusion are presented. The article discusses the methods of characterizing abrasive wear and factors affecting abrasive wear. It discusses various die coatings and surface treatments used to extend the lives of dies: alloying surface treatments, micropeening, and electroplating.
Book Chapter
Coining
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003987
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... medals, also reduce die life unless the tonnage can be lowered. Low tonnage requirements often can be achieved by striking softer blanks, provided the blank is not so soft that a fin is extruded on coining. Dies for Decorative Coining Selection of tool steels for fabrication of dies used...
Abstract
Coining is a closed-die forging operation in which all surfaces of the workpiece are confined or restrained, resulting in a well-defined imprint of the die on the workpiece. This article focuses on the coining equipment (hammers and presses), lubricants, and general and special die materials used in the coining process. It discusses the coinability of metals such as steels, copper, and composite metals. The article describes the control of dimensions, surface finishes, and weight of coined items. It concludes with a discussion on processing problems and solutions.
Book Chapter
Blanking of Low-Carbon Steel
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14b.a0005108
EISBN: 978-1-62708-186-3
... Abstract This article discusses the production of blanks from low-carbon steel sheet and strip in dies in a mechanical or hydraulic press. It describes the cutting operations that are done by dies in presses to produce blanks. The applications of blanking methods are described with examples...
Abstract
This article discusses the production of blanks from low-carbon steel sheet and strip in dies in a mechanical or hydraulic press. It describes the cutting operations that are done by dies in presses to produce blanks. The applications of blanking methods are described with examples. The article reviews the characteristics of blanked edges and explains how to calculate the forces and the work involved in blanking. Factors affecting the processing of blanks are discussed. The article provides information on the selection of work metal form, the effect of work metal thickness on the selection of material for dies and related components, as well as the selection of die type and design. The article illustrates the construction and use of short-run dies and conventional dies. It concludes with information on the shaving and deburring methods for blanking.
Book Chapter
Thread Rolling
Available to PurchaseBook: Machining
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 16
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1989
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v16.a0002142
EISBN: 978-1-62708-188-7
... surface finish tangential rolling thread dimension thread rolling through-feed rolling THREAD ROLLING (also known as roll threading) is a cold forming process for producing threads or other helical or annular forms by rolling the impression of hardened steel dies into the surface of a cylindrical...
Abstract
This article discusses the three characteristics that are important in evaluating and selecting metals for thread rolling, namely, rollability, flaking, and seaming. It reviews the capabilities and limitations of flat-die rolling, radial-infeed rolling, tangential rolling, through-feed rolling, planetary thread rolling, continuous rolling, and internal thread rolling, as well as the rolling machines and dies used. The article describes the factors affecting die life and provides information on radial die load, seam formation, surface finish, and thread dimensions that are affected by the form of the thread. It explains the reasons for using fluids in thread rolling. The article concludes with a comparison of rolling with cutting and grinding.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003975
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... fatigue, and mechanical fatigue. The article describes heat treating practices commonly employed for chromium- and tungsten-base AISI hot-work tool steels. It discusses the fabrication of impression dies, and the advantages and disadvantages of cast dies. The article concludes with a discussion...
Abstract
This article addresses dies and die materials used for hot forging in vertical presses, hammers, and horizontal forging machines (upsetters). It reviews the properties of die materials for hot forging, including good hardenability, resistance to wear, plastic deformation, thermal fatigue, and mechanical fatigue. The article describes heat treating practices commonly employed for chromium- and tungsten-base AISI hot-work tool steels. It discusses the fabrication of impression dies, and the advantages and disadvantages of cast dies. The article concludes with a discussion on the factors that affect die life and safety precautions to be considered during die construction.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14b.a0005162
EISBN: 978-1-62708-186-3
... of 0.2 m/s (40 ft/min) is recommended; high punch speeds also shorten tool life. Dies Low-carbon steel can be formed by any of several types of dies. Bending dies include V-dies, wiping dies, U-bending dies, rotary bending dies, cam-actuated flanging dies, wing dies, and compound flanging dies...
Abstract
This article reviews the selection and formability characteristics of steels, with an emphasis on low-carbon steels and some coverage on the forming of high-carbon steels. It describes the key factors that affect the formability of steels in terms of steelmaking practices, surface finishes, metal thicknesses, and alloying. The article explains the bending and forming operations with some examples. It also describes the formation of various shells, including doubly contoured shells, deep recessed shells, and deep circular shells.
Book Chapter
Industrial Applications of Analytics and Modeling for Carburizing and Quenching Processes
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4F
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 February 2024
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v4F.a0007017
EISBN: 978-1-62708-450-5
..., an alternate method is to estimate the hardenability of steel from the chemical composition based on the original work by Grossman. In this method, hardenability is expressed in terms of the ideal critical diameter (DI), which refers to the largest diameter of steel bar that can be quenched to produce 50...
Abstract
Mathematical models have been used for over five decades in industrial heat-treating operations. Most of these modeling efforts have emanated from academia or research institutes, with the primary approach of mathematically capturing heat-treating processes and validating quality predictions. In this article, a contrarian but more realistic scenario is considered, where two industrial problem descriptions become the starting point. The technical complexity of the industry problem has been elaborated for a deeper understanding of the issue along with elaboration of the approach and potential methods for determining a solution. Then, quantitative analyses of practical industrial problems are demonstrated. Finally, the potential shift in these approaches with the advent of Industry 4.0 is outlined.
Book Chapter
Die Manufacturing and Finishing
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004041
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... machining spindle speed surface cutting speeds FORGING DIES or inserts are machined from solid blocks or forged die steels. By using standard support components such as die holders and guide pins, which ensure the overall functionality of tooling assembly, the time necessary for manufacturing a die...
Abstract
This article reviews the methods of machining and finishing forging dies. It illustrates different stages in die manufacturing. The article provides a brief description on requirements and characteristics of high-speed machining tools, including feed rates, spindle speed, surface cutting speeds, and high acceleration and deceleration capabilities. It discusses electrodischarge machining process and electrochemical machining process. The article concludes with information on die-making methods.
Book Chapter
Selection of Materials for Press-Forming Dies
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14b.a0005140
EISBN: 978-1-62708-186-3
..., nitrided tool steel, or highly alloyed powder metallurgy (P/M) tool steel. In materials selection for large dies, the cost of material is equal to or greater than the cost of machining. In smaller dies, the difference between the cost of the most expensive and the cheapest steels is less important than...
Abstract
This article reviews the production variables that influence the selection of various stamping die materials: ferrous, nonferrous, and plastic die materials. It provides a discussion on the specific types of die materials for tool steels, cast irons, plastics, aluminum, bronze, zinc-aluminum, and steel-bonded carbides. The article describes factors to be considered during the selection of materials for press-forming dies.
Book: Machining
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 16
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1989
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v16.a0002165
EISBN: 978-1-62708-188-7
... being machined, the use of electrical discharge machining is not affected by the hardness of the work. Materials with poor machinability, such as cemented tungsten carbide and hardened tool steel, can be cut by the EDM process Electrical discharge machining is typically applied to molds and dies...
Abstract
This article discusses the use of a shaped electrode for electrical discharge machining (EDM). It describes the operational methodology of the EDM. Topography, metallurgical and chemical effects, and surface integrity of the EDM surface are reviewed. The article provides information on the characteristics of electrodes and the process features of electrode manufacturing. Functions of the dielectric fluids and applications of the EDM are discussed. The article reviews the advancement in EDM such as no-wear EDM and computer numerically controlled vertical EDM. It analyzes the applications and process of the traveling wire EDM. Health and safety measures for the EDM process are also discussed.
Book Chapter
Die Manufacture by Electrical Discharge Machining
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14b.a0005158
EISBN: 978-1-62708-186-3
..., especially those made of hardened die steel and tungsten carbide in many forms, such as plastic injection molds, extrusion dies, forging dies, and die casting dies. Traveling-wire EDM differs from conventional (shaped electrode) EDM in that a thin-diameter wire acts as the electrode. Electrical discharge...
Abstract
The electrical discharge machining (EDM) process is used for machining dies because of its ability to machining difficult geometries or materials with poor machinability. This article provides a discussion on the fundamentals of electrical discharge erosion and the principles of EDM and orbital-movement EDM. It discusses various aspects of wire EDM in machining dies and provides an overview of the materials used in EDM electrodes. The article concludes with a discussion on electrochemical machining.
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