Electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) makes it possible to combine structural and compositional analysis in one operation. This article describes the basic concepts of microanalysis and the processing of EPMA that involves the measurement of the characteristic X-rays emitted from a microscopic part of a solid specimen bombarded by a beam of accelerated electrons. It provides information on the various aspects of energy-dispersive spectrometry (EDS) and wavelength-dispersive spectrometry (WDS), and elucidates the qualitative analysis of the major constituents of EDS and WDS. The article includes information on the analog and digital compositional mapping of elemental distribution, and describes the strengths and weaknesses of WDS and EDS spectrometers in X-ray mapping. It also outlines the application of EPMA for solving various problems in materials science.

This article is a detailed account of the principles of electron-excited X-ray microanalysis. It begins by discussing the physical basis of electron-excited X-ray microanalysis and the advantages and limitations of energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) and wavelength dispersive spectrometry for electron probe microanalysis. Key concepts for performing qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis by electron-excited X-ray spectrometry are then presented. Several sources that lead to measurement uncertainties in the k-ratio/matrix corrections protocol are provided, along with the significance of the raw analytical total. Sections on accuracy of the standards-based k-ratio/matrix corrections protocol with EDS and processes of analysis when severe peak overlap occurs are also included. The article provides information on low-atomic-number elements, iterative qualitative-quantitative analysis for complex compositions, and significance of standardless analysis in the EDS software. It ends with a section on the processes involved in elemental mapping for major and minor constituents.

This article briefly discusses popular techniques for metals characterization. It begins with a description of the most common techniques for determining chemical composition of metals, namely X-ray fluorescence, optical emission spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, high-temperature combustion, and inert gas fusion. This is followed by a section on techniques for determining the atomic structure of crystals, namely X-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction, and electron diffraction. Types of electron microscopies most commonly used for microstructural analysis of metals, such as scanning electron microscopy, electron probe microanalysis, and transmission electron microscopy, are then reviewed. The article contains tables listing analytical methods used for characterization of metals and alloys and surface analysis techniques. It ends by discussing the objective of metallography.

Microstructural analysis is the combined characterization of the morphology, elemental composition, and crystallography of microstructural features through the use of a microscope. This article reviews three types of the most commonly used electron microscopies in metallurgical studies, namely scanning electron microscopy, electron probe microanalysis, and transmission electron microscopy. It briefly describes the operating principles, instrumentation which includes energy dispersive X-ray detectors, spatial resolution, typical use of the techniques, elemental analysis detection threshold and precision, limitations, sample requirements, and the capabilities of related techniques.

This article describes the operation and capabilities of surface analysis methods of metals, including scanning electron microscopy, electron probe microanalysis, transmission electron microscopy, secondary ion mass spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. It provides information on the capabilities, typical uses, spatial resolution, elemental analysis detection threshold and precision, limitations, sample requirements, and operating principles of the scanning auger microprobe.

This article focuses on the visual or macroscopic examination of damaged materials and interpretation of damage and fracture features. Analytical tools available for evaluations of corrosion and wear damage features include energy dispersive spectroscopy, electron probe microanalysis, Auger electron spectroscopy, secondary ion mass spectroscopy, and X-ray powder diffraction. The article discusses the analysis and interpretation of base material composition and microstructures. Preparation and examination of metallographic specimens in failure analysis are also discussed. The article concludes with a review of the evaluation of polymers and ceramic materials in failure analysis.

This article discusses the capabilities and limitations of various material characterization methods that assist in the selection of a proper analytical tool for analyzing particulate materials. Commonly used methods are microanalysis, surface analysis, and bulk analysis. The techniques used for performing microanalysis include scanning electron microscopy and electron probe X-ray microanalysis. The article describes surface analysis techniques, including Auger electron spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and ion-scattering spectroscopy. Bulk analysis techniques, such as X-ray powder diffraction, inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy, atomic absorption spectroscopy, and atomic fluorescence spectrometry, are also discussed.

This article provides a general introduction of materials characterization and describes the principles and applications of a limited number of techniques that are most commonly used to characterize the composition and structure of metals used in engineering systems. It briefly describes the classification of materials characterization methods including, bulk elemental characterization, bulk structural characterization, microstructural characterization, and surface characterization. Further, the article reviews the selection of materials characterization methods most commonly used with metals.

The overall chemical composition of metals and alloys is most commonly determined by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and optical emission spectroscopy (OES), and combustion and inert gas fusion analysis. This article provides information on the capabilities, uses, detection threshold and precision methods, and sample requirements. The amount of material that needs to be sampled, operating principles, and limitations of the stated methods are also discussed.

This article is an overview of the division Surface Analysis of this volume. The division covers various developed surface-analysis techniques, such as scanning probe and atomic force microscopy. The division focuses on the analysis of surface layers that are less than 100 nm. A quick reference summary of surface-analysis methods is presented in this article.