This article is a comprehensive collection of summary charts that provide data and information that are helpful in considering and selecting applicable processes alternative to the conventional material-removal processes. Process summary charts are provided for electrochemical machining, electrical discharge machining, chemical machining, abrasive jet machining, laser beam machining, electron beam machining, ultrasonic impact grinding, hydrodynamic machining, thermochemical machining, abrasive flow machining, and electrical discharge wire cutting.

This article provides a brief account of glow discharge mass spectrometry (GDMS) for direct determination of trace elements in solid samples and for fast depth profiling in a great variety of innovative materials. It begins by describing the general principles of GDMS. This is followed by a discussion on the various components of a GDMS system as well as commercial GDMS instruments. A description of processes involved in specimen preparation and cleaning in GDMS is then presented. Various problems pertinent to multielemental calibrations in GDMS are discussed along with measures to overcome them. The article further provides information on the processes involved in the analytical setup of parameters in GDMS, covering the steps involved in the analysis of GDMS data. It ends with a section on the application and interpretation of GDMS in the metals industry.

Both surface finish and surface integrity must be defined, measured, and maintained within specified limits in the processing of any product. Surface texture is defined in terms of roughness, waviness, lay, and flaws. This article illustrates some of the designations of surface roughness and the symbols for defining lay and its direction. In addition, it describes the applications of surface integrity, typical surface integrity problems created in metal removal operations, and principal causes of surface alterations produced by machining processes. The article tabulates the effect of some machining methods on fatigue strength, and low-stress grinding procedures for steels, nickel-base high-temperature alloys, and titanium alloys.

Machining is a term that covers a large collection of manufacturing processes designed to remove unwanted material, usually in the form of chips, from a workpiece. This article discusses the basic classes of machining operations, including conventional, abrasive, and nontraditional, and outlines the type of costs incurred by the process. It describes the types of machining equipment, including general-purpose machine tools, production machining systems, and computer numerically controlled machining systems. The article lists the common classes of metallic work materials, in order of decreasing machinability. It also shows the range of dimensional and surface finish tolerances in graphical form that can be achieved using various machining processes under general machining conditions.

In terms of their electrical properties, plastics can be divided into thermosetting and thermoplastic materials, some of which are conductive or semiconductive. This article provides detailed information on factors that affect the property of plastics. It discusses the major test methods used to determine the following dielectric properties of plastics: dielectric breakdown voltage, dielectric strength, dielectric constant, dissipation factor, arc tracking resistance, insulation resistance, volume, and surface resistivity or conductivity. The test specifications and conditions, recommended by several U.S. and foreign testing organizations for characterizing the electrical properties of plastic materials are listed. The article describes the influence of these properties on selection of plastics for insulation application. An outline of the electromagnetic shielding and testing methods of electromagnetic interference are also provided. Designations, electrical properties, and applications of elastomers are tabulated.

Electrical contacts are metal devices that make and break electrical circuits. This article describes the property requirements such as electrical conductivity, mechanical properties, chemical properties, fabrication properties, and thermal properties of make-break arcing contacts. The article also focuses on brush contact materials and their interdependence factors for sliding contacts. In addition, the article discusses the properties, manufacturing methods, and applications of electrical contact materials, including wrought materials such as copper metals, silver metals, gold metals, precious metal overlays, tungsten, molybdenum, and aluminum, and composite materials. It concludes by discussing the composite manufacturing methods such as infiltration, press-sinter, press-sinter-repress process, press-sinter-extrude process, internal oxidation, and preoxidized-press-sinter-extrude process, and coprecipitation.

Ceramic materials serve important insulative, capacitive, conductive, resistive, sensor, electrooptic, and magnetic functions in a wide variety of electrical and electronic circuitry. This article focuses on various applications of advanced ceramics in both electric power and electronics industry, namely, dielectric, piezoelectric, ferroelectric, sensing, magnetic and superconducting devices.

Ceramics usually require some form of machining prior to use to meet dimensional and surface quality standards. This article focuses on abrasive machining, particularly grinding, and addresses common methods and critical process factors. It covers cylindrical, centerless, and disk grinding and provides information on tooling, wheel selection, work material, and operational factors. It also discusses precision slicing and slotting, lapping, honing, and polishing as well as abrasive waterjet, electrical discharge, laser, and ultrasonic machining.

This article discusses the operation of upset forging machines and selection of the machine size. It describes several types of upsetter heading tools and their materials. The article reviews the cold shearing and hot shearing methods for preparing blanks for hot upset forging. It deals with various upsetting processes: offset upsetting, double-end upsetting, upsetting with sliding dies, upsetting pipe and tubing, and electric upsetting. The article also provides information on hot forging and cold forging.

In high-iron-tonnage operations, the cupola remains the most efficient source of continuous high volumes of iron needed to satisfy high production foundries or the multiple casting machines of centrifugal pipe producers. This article explores successful improvement technologies in cupola equipment, including preheated air blast, recuperative hot blast systems, and duplex electric holders. It discusses the shell, intermittent or continuous tapping, tuyere and blower systems, refractory lining, water-cooled cupolas, emission-control systems, and storage and handling of the charge materials. The article provides a discussion on control tests for cupola, including the chill test and mechanical test. It concludes with information on specialized cupolas such as cokeless cupola and plasma-fired cupola.

Eddy-current inspection is a nondestructive evaluation method based on the principles of electromagnetic induction. Eddy-current methods are used to identify or differentiate a wide variety of physical, structural, and metallurgical conditions in electrically conductive ferromagnetic and nonferromagnetic metals and metal parts. Giving a brief introduction on the uses of eddy-current inspection, this article discusses the operating principles and the principal operating variables encountered in eddy-current inspection, including coil impedance, electrical conductivity, magnetic permeability, lift-off and fill factors, edge effect, and skin effect. It further describes different aspects of eddy current testing such as the selection of inspection frequencies and the types and configurations of inspection coils. The article also deals with the eddy current instrumentation and the discontinuities that are detectable by eddy-current methods.

Eddy-current inspection is based on the principles of electromagnetic induction and is used to identify or differentiate among a wide variety of physical, structural, and metallurgical conditions in electrically conductive ferromagnetic and nonferromagnetic metals and metal parts. This article discusses the advantages and limitations of eddy-current inspection, as well as the development of the eddy-current inspection process. It reviews the principal operating variables encountered in eddy-current inspection: coil impedance, electrical conductivity, magnetic permeability, lift-off and fill factors, edge effect, and skin effect. The article illustrates some of the principal impedance concepts that are fundamental to understanding of and effective application of eddy-current inspection. It discusses various types of eddy-current instruments, such as the resistor and single-coil system, bridge unbalance system, induction bridge system, and through transmission system. The article concludes with a discussion on the inspection of aircraft structural and engine components.

This article focuses on the influence of various work material properties, namely, hardness; toughness; stiffness; ductility; thermal, electrical, and magnetic properties; and microstructure effects on finishing methods. It also addresses the relative response of work materials, such as metals, ceramics, and composites, to grinding.

This article discusses the characteristics, properties, and production methods of copper powders and copper alloy powders. Bulk of the discussion is devoted to production and applications of powder metallurgy (P/M) parts, including pure copper P/M parts, bronze P/M parts, brass and nickel silver P/M parts, copper-nickel P/M parts, copper-lead P/M parts, copper-base P/M friction materials, copper-base P/M electrical contact materials, copper-base P/M brush materials, infiltrated parts, and oxide-dispersion-strengthened copper P/M materials.

This article reviews the methods of machining and finishing forging dies. It illustrates different stages in die manufacturing. The article provides a brief description on requirements and characteristics of high-speed machining tools, including feed rates, spindle speed, surface cutting speeds, and high acceleration and deceleration capabilities. It discusses electrodischarge machining process and electrochemical machining process. The article concludes with information on die-making methods.

Specialty steels encompass a broad range of ferrous alloys noted for their special processing characteristics (powder metallurgy alloys), corrosion resistance (stainless steels), wear resistance and toughness (tool steels), high strength (maraging steels), or magnetic properties (electrical steels). This article provides a detailed discussion on the various surface treatments, including cleaning, nitriding, carburizing, coating, and plating, performed on specialty steels.

Bulk molding compounds can be molded into a variety of complex shapes by methods that can be readily automated for high volume production. This article describes the formulation and processing (compound formation, and molding methods) of bulk molding compounds. It discusses the effects of fiber type, fiber length, and matrix type on thermoset bulk molding compounds. The markets for long-fiber-reinforced bulk molding compounds are electrical, ordnance, aerospace, industrial, sporting goods, and automotive.

This article introduces thermal spray coatings and describes the various types of coating processes and coating devices, including the flame spray, electric-arc spray, plasma spray, transferred plasma arc, high-velocity oxyfuel, and detonation gun. It provides information on the surface preparation methods and finishing treatments of coated parts. The article also explains the tests to evaluate the coating quality and the effects of coating structures and mechanical properties on coated parts. It concludes with a discussion on the uses of thermal spray coatings.

Electroless nickel plating is used to deposit nickel without the use of an electric current. This article provides an overview of the solution composition and characteristics of the electroless nickel bath. It focuses on the metallurgical, mechanical and physical properties of electroless nickel-phosphorus coatings and electroless nickel-boron coatings. The effect of electroless nickel coatings on the fatigue strength of steel is also described. The article includes information on the recommended pretreatment procedures for different ferrous alloys, aluminum alloys, and copper alloys. It presents a detailed account of the equipment and various processes—including bulk and barrel plating—involved in electroless nickel plating, and discusses hydrogen relief methods. The article includes a comprehensive table on nickel plating applications, and concludes with information on electroless nickel coatings on composites and plastics.