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Book: Casting
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 15
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005225
EISBN: 978-1-62708-187-0
... process that always produces a wide range of droplet diameters. The article schematically illustrates a typical log-normal droplet diameter probability density distribution on a mass or volume basis obtained by gas atomization. It also explains the changes in solid fraction during the spray casting...
Abstract
Spray casting, also known as spray forming, is a niche casting process for the manufacture of preforms. This article lists commercial examples of alloys manufactured by spray casting and provides sequential steps of the spray casting process. Gas atomization is a chaotic, stochastic process that always produces a wide range of droplet diameters. The article schematically illustrates a typical log-normal droplet diameter probability density distribution on a mass or volume basis obtained by gas atomization. It also explains the changes in solid fraction during the spray casting process as a function of axial distance from the point of droplet atomization. The article concludes with information on the occurrence of macrosegregation and coarsening in spray cast preforms.
Image
Scanning electron micrographs of atomized droplets of martensitic stainless...
Available to PurchasePublished: 01 December 2004
Fig. 37 Scanning electron micrographs of atomized droplets of martensitic stainless steel. (a) and (b) Dendritic structures. (c) and (d) Cellular structures. Source: Ref 19
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Book: Powder Metallurgy
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 7
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 September 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v07.a0006084
EISBN: 978-1-62708-175-7
... metric tons/year. Atomization has become the dominant mode of powder production because high production rates favor economies of scale and because prealloyed powders can be produced only by atomization. Atomization is simply the breakup of a liquid into fine droplets. Any material available in liquid...
Abstract
Atomization is the dominant method for producing metal and prealloyed powders from aluminum, brass, iron, low-alloy steels, stainless steels, tool steels, superalloys, titanium alloys, and other alloys. The general types of atomization processes encompass a number of industrial and research methods. This article describes the key process variables and production factors for the industrial methods: two-fluid, centrifugal, vacuum or soluble-gas, and ultrasonic atomization. It also reviews the effect of atomization methods and process variables on key powder characteristics such as the average particle size, particle size distribution or screen analysis, particle shape, chemical composition, and microstructure.
Book Chapter
Production of Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Powder
Available to PurchaseBook: Powder Metallurgy
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 7
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 September 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v07.a0006065
EISBN: 978-1-62708-175-7
... and centrifugal atomization, ultrasonic or pulsed atomization, melt spinning with attrition, and mechanically alloying. Gas atomization is used for several applications. In gas atomization, a high-velocity gas jet disintegrates molten aluminum into droplets that solidify to form the powder. In the Alcoa...
Abstract
This article discusses the production of aluminum and aluminum alloy powders with emphasis on the gas atomization method and the atomizing nozzle. It illustrates the particle formation mechanism and details the requisites for particle size distribution, control, and morphology. The article presents information on the mean oxide thickness formed on atomized powders. It also describes the mechanical and physical properties of aluminum and aluminum alloy powders, as well as their applications.
Image
(a) Typical log-normal droplet diameter probability density distribution on...
Available to PurchasePublished: 01 December 2008
Fig. 5 (a) Typical log-normal droplet diameter probability density distribution on a mass or volume basis obtained by gas atomization, with superimposed assumed boundaries between solid, mushy, and liquid droplets at the point of deposition during spray casting. (b) The same log-normal droplet
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Image
Simulated (upper row) and experimental (lower row) microstructures of atomi...
Available to PurchasePublished: 01 December 2004
Fig. 8 Simulated (upper row) and experimental (lower row) microstructures of atomized Al-10Cu (mass%) droplets with various droplet diameters: (a) 40 μm, (b) 100 μm, (c) 200 μm, and (d) 100 μm. Here (a), (b), and (c) indicate the microstructures shown in two-dimensional cross section and three
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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006653
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... the analyte atom distribution within each aerosol droplet was required to provide a more uniform time-dependent atomic absorption signal. To achieve this result, an alternate approach to sample introduction than the direct-insertion technique was developed, that is, a spray chamber. This enabled introduction...
Abstract
This article focuses on some of the factors pertinent to atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). It begins by describing the working principle, critical components, and construction of flame atomic absorption instrumentation. This is followed by sections discussing various types of interferences in AAS, namely vaporization, ionization, matrix interferences, and background correction. Some of the methods for the analysis of microliter-sized samples and methods of standard additions to the sample solution for generating calibration standards are then reviewed. The article concludes with a section on processes involved in matrix matching.
Book Chapter
Development of Alloy Powders for Biomedical Additive Manufacturing
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 23A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 12 September 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v23A.a0006907
EISBN: 978-1-62708-392-8
... methods for metallic powders are introduced. Gas Atomization Figure 1 shows the basic schematics of the gas atomization process ( Ref 5 ). The metals are heated to melt in a crucible with a nozzle. Molten metal drops downward from the nozzle and is blown by gas to form liquid droplets...
Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM) techniques include powder-bed fusion (PBF), directed-energy deposition, binder jetting (BJ), extrusion-based desktop, vat photopolymerization, material jetting, and sheet lamination. The development of suitable powders for AM is a challenging task because of critical design parameters including chemical composition, flowability of powders, and melt surface tension. This article explains the fabrication methods of metal and novel alloy powders for medical applications. The development of zirconium alloy powder for laser-PBF is introduced as a case study.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1986
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0001730
EISBN: 978-1-62708-178-8
... atoms) the fine sample droplets produced by the nebulizer. Next is the monochromator, which isolates a wavelength of light characteristic of a particular quantized transition between electronic energy levels of the outer electrons of the selected analyte element. The third component is the light...
Abstract
Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) is generally used for measuring relatively low concentrations of approximately 70 metallic or semimetallic elements in solution samples. This article describes several features that are common to three techniques, namely, AAS, atomic emission spectrometry (AES), and atomic fluorescence spectrometry (AFS). It discusses the reasons for the extreme differences in AAS sensitivities that affect AFS and AES. The article provides information on the advantages and disadvantages of the Smith/Hieftje system and two types of background correction systems, namely, the continuum-source background correction and Zeeman background correction. It also provides a list of applications of conventional AAS equipment, which includes most of the types of samples brought to laboratories for elemental analyses.
Book Chapter
Feedstock Material Considerations for Thermal Spray
Available to PurchaseBook: Thermal Spray Technology
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2013
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05a.a0005727
EISBN: 978-1-62708-171-9
... Excellent as a corrosion-resistant bond coat Service up to 850 °C (1560 °F) Can be postcoat heat treated for improved performance MCrAlY alloys (iron base) Fe 24Cr 8Al 0.5Y Gas atomized Very high oxidation and erosion resistance For water droplet erosion protection in steam turbines, high oxidation...
Abstract
This article discusses three types of powder-feeder systems that are commonly used throughout the thermal spray (TS) industry: gravity-based devices, rotating wheel devices, and fluidized-bed systems. It provides information on the various mechanical methods for producing powders, namely, crushing, milling, attriting, and machining. The article describes two prime methods of agglomeration. One method uses a binder by way of agglutination, while the other relies on a sintering operation. The article discusses the technology and principles of the processes that relate to thermal spraying, and offers an understanding for choosing particular feedstock materials that are classified based on the thermal spray process, material morphology, chemical nature of the material, and applications. Sieving, the most common method of separating powders into their size fractions, is also reviewed. The article also provides information on the topical areas and precautions to be undertaken to protect the operator from safety hazards.
Book Chapter
Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1986
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0001729
EISBN: 978-1-62708-178-8
... flow, termed the nebulizer or carrier gas, to create a low-pressure zone into which sample solution is drawn or pumped through a capillary tube and subsequently atomized into fine droplets of varying sizes by the force of the flowing gas. The size distribution of the droplets generally ranges from 0.1...
Abstract
Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) is an analytical technique for elemental determinations in the concentration range of major to trace based on the principles of atomic spectroscopy. This article provides a description of the basic atomic theory, and explains the analytical procedures and various interference effects of ICP, namely, spectral, vaporization-atomization, and ionization. It provides a detailed discussion on the principal components of an analytical ICP system, namely, the sample introduction system; ICP torch and argon gas supplies; radio-frequency generator and associated electronics; spectrometers, such as polychromators and monochromators; detection electronics and interface; and the system computer with appropriate hardware and software. The article also describes the uses of direct-current plasma, and provides examples of the applications of ICP-AES.
Book Chapter
Arc Physics of Gas Tungsten and Gas Metal Arc Welding
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 6A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 October 2011
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v06a.a0005664
EISBN: 978-1-62708-174-0
.... When the oxide layer is very thin (on the order of one atom layer), emission occurs via a tunneling mechanism through the film to an emitting site. Thicker oxide films exhibit locally conducting spots at the end of filamentary channels through the oxide. Large currents flow in these channels, which...
Abstract
This article provides the basic physics of the two most widely used arc welding processes: gas tungsten arc welding and gas metal arc welding. It describes the various control parameters of these processes such as arc length control, voltage control, heat input control, and metal-transfer control.
Book Chapter
Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006647
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... <xref rid="a0006647-ref30" ref-type="bibr">(Ref 30)</xref> The peristaltic pump injects the analyte into a micrometer-sized capillary inlet (the nebulizer inlet), whereby a high-velocity argon gas flow is injected to atomize the electrolyte into fine droplets ranging from 0.1 to 100 μm in diameter. This aerosol is subsequently introduced...
Abstract
This article provides a clear but nonexhaustive description of the general principle of atomic emission, with a particular focus on instrumentation, and summarizes the main characteristics of the inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer technique. Basic atomic theory as well as the instrument characteristics and their influence on the instrument performances are presented. The advantages, drawbacks, and developments of this technique are discussed, and, finally, alternative techniques and examples of applications are provided.
Book Chapter
Coating Structures, Properties, and Materials
Available to PurchaseBook: Thermal Spray Technology
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2013
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05a.a0005755
EISBN: 978-1-62708-171-9
... of the degree of particle melting achieved in flight. In electric-arc-sprayed coatings, the lamellar microstructures are also typical and indicate that the atomized droplets had not yet solidified prior to impact. The degree of melting in the coating structure, as indicated by these lamellae, largely determines...
Abstract
This article provides information on thermal spray coating features, which combine to determine the properties of a coating. These include the lamellar or layered splat structure, entrapped unmelted or resolidified particles, pores, oxide inclusions, grains, phases, cracks, and bond interfaces. The article describes the sources of porosity and the factors that control the final coating porosity levels. The article also lists the materials most suitable for thermal spraying processes.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2013
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04a.a0005780
EISBN: 978-1-62708-165-8
... atomized pneumatically, a dual-phase flow of droplets and air affect the surface-cooling process during spraying and should not be neglected ( Ref 17 ). The relationship between the work required to form many new droplet surfaces (W), the surface tension of the solution (σ), and the newly formed surface...
Abstract
This article, with the aid of illustrations and curves, describes an experiment used to understand the cooling characteristics and transformation behavior of steel wires during patenting. The two aqueous polymer quenchants used as alternatives for lead baths, are carboxymethyl cellulose and polyvinyl alcohol. A small amount of polymer additive in spraying could modify the physical properties of the spray medium and improve atomizing status. The concentration-fog flux effect further improves the flexibility of spraying and makes it easier to control the cooling process.
Book Chapter
Laser-Induced Forward Transfer of Biomaterials
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 23A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 12 September 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v23A.a0006860
EISBN: 978-1-62708-392-8
... be noted that the different jetting regimes may result in different patterns upon deposition, from a single droplet to a heavily atomized area formed by microdroplets. The Rayleigh and first-wind-induced break-up regimes are of main interest during LIFT-assisted printing processes due to their deposition...
Abstract
The use of 3D bioprinting techniques has contributed to the development of novel cellular patterns and constructs in vitro, ex vivo, and even in vivo. There are three main bioprinting techniques: inkjet printing, extrusion printing (also known as bioextrusion), laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT) printing, which is also known as modified LIFT printing, matrix-assisted pulsed-laser evaporation direct write, and laser-based printing (laser-assisted bioprinting, or biological laser printing). This article provides an overview of the LIFT process, including the LIFT process introduction, different implementations, jetting dynamics, printability phase diagrams, and printing process simulations. Additionally, materials involved during LIFT are introduced in terms of bioink materials and energy-absorbing layer materials. Also, the printing of single cells and 2D and 3D constructs is introduced, showcasing the current state of the art with the ultimate goal for tissue- and organ-printing applications.
Book: Powder Metallurgy
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 7
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 September 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v07.a0006102
EISBN: 978-1-62708-175-7
... molten iron stream into fine droplets by high-velocity waterjets. The atomized iron powder has a solid and irregular particle structure so that it has high apparent density and good flowability. Hence, high-density PM components can be achieved using this type of iron powder. Reduced iron powders...
Abstract
Particle image analysis of metal powders can be easily performed with optical macroscopes and microscopes. This article provides examples of the particle image analysis on powders used in the powder metallurgy industry.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1990
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v02.a0001095
EISBN: 978-1-62708-162-7
... to accomplish this ( Ref 4 ). A liquid droplet is melted in a nonreactive crucible under an inert atmosphere. The droplet is suddenly subjected to an acoustical shock wave that both atomizes and accelerates the atomized droplets against a cold copper surface at ambient temperature. The individual atomized...
Abstract
Metallic glasses can be prepared by solidification of liquid alloys at cooling rates sufficient to suppress the nucleation and growth of competing crystalline phases. This article presents a historical survey of the study of metallic glasses and other amorphous metals and alloys. This includes a discussion of synthesis and processing methods, structure and morphology, and a description of the electronic, magnetic, thermodynamic, chemical, and mechanical properties of metallic glasses. In addition, the article describes the development of metallic glasses as materials for technical applications.
Book Chapter
Modeling of Heat and Mass Transfer in Fusion Welding
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 6A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 October 2011
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v06a.a0005636
EISBN: 978-1-62708-174-0
... considering the free surface flow under metal droplet impact. These models have significantly improved the current understanding of welding transport phenomena ( Ref 4 ), including various driving forces for molten metal flow in the weld pool, effect of shielding gas composition, dendrite microstructure...
Abstract
This article provides a comprehensive review and critical assessment of numerical modeling of heat and mass transfer in fusion welding. The different fusion welding processes are gas tungsten arc welding, gas metal arc welding, laser welding, electron beam welding, and laser-arc hybrid welding. The article presents the mathematical equations of mass, momentum, energy, and species conservation. It reviews the applications of heat transfer and fluid flow models for different welding processes. Finally, the article discusses the approaches to improve reliability of, and reduce uncertainty in, numerical models.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1986
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0001728
EISBN: 978-1-62708-178-8
... is only the beginning of sampling. Once in the flame, the droplets follow the sequence illustrated in Fig. 12 . The free atoms are excited in an environment that in most cases is in LTE. Therefore, the most important factors controlling the efficiency with which an atom is excited are the flame...
Abstract
This article discusses the general principles, optical systems, and emission sources of optical emission spectroscopy for elemental analysis. Changes in the energy of the valence or outer shell electrons result in the atomic lines used in emission spectroscopy. Each possible combination of electron configurations produces a spectroscopic term that describes the state of the atom. Atomic emission is analytically useful only to the extent that the emission from one atomic species can be measured and its intensity recorded independent of emission from other sources. Emission sources are often designed to minimize molecular emission. Each of the four types of emission sources; arcs, high-voltage sparks, glow discharges, and flames; has a set of physical characteristics with accompanying analytical assets and liabilities. The article also discusses the applications of each type of emission source.
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