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distance-amplitude blocks
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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006473
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
... the variables that should be considered when selecting standard reference blocks and describes the three types of standard blocks ordinarily used for calibration or reference: area-amplitude blocks, distance-amplitude blocks, and blocks of the type sanctioned by the International Institute of Welding...
Abstract
This article discusses the inspection/reference standards that are absolutely critical for proper application of ultrasonic inspection systems. Many of the standards and specifications for ultrasonic inspection require the use of standard reference blocks. The article lists the variables that should be considered when selecting standard reference blocks and describes the three types of standard blocks ordinarily used for calibration or reference: area-amplitude blocks, distance-amplitude blocks, and blocks of the type sanctioned by the International Institute of Welding. It reviews the determination of area-amplitude and distance-amplitude curves of a straight-beam pulse-echo ultrasonic inspection system. The article discusses the three principal conventional manual ultrasonic sizing techniques: 6 dB drop technique, maximum-amplitude technique, and 20 dB drop technique. It provides information on the dimension-measurement applications of ultrasonic inspection methods.
Image
Published: 01 August 2018
Fig. 6 Standard reference blocks for use in straight-beam ultrasonic inspection. (a) Area-amplitude block. (b) Distance-amplitude block. Dimensions given on figures are in inches. (c) Example of set of cylinders. In most cases, cylinders have the surface opening of the flat-bottomed hole
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Image
Published: 01 August 2018
Fig. 10 Specification for example of a set of calibration blocks used for area-amplitude and distance-amplitude correction curves. Source: Applied Test Systems, Inc.
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Image
in Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers for Nondestructive Evaluation
> Nondestructive Evaluation of Materials
Published: 01 August 2018
and brittle PM material to the rest of the EMAT body. In addition to the coil current, the coil lift-off distance, h , determines the strength of currents induced in the test block and hence the strength of the shear wave that is generated. In (a), the distribution of return current in the test block
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Image
Published: 01 August 2018
Fig. 2 Distance-amplitude curves for type 304 stainless steel showing effect of grain size on ultrasonic transmissibility. Tests were conducted at 5 MHz with a 30 mm (1 1 8 in.) diameter search unit on three reference blocks having various metal distances to 20 mm ( 3 4
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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006472
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
... for the reference blocks according to applicable codes and standards. It also provides the ASME, CEN, and ISO recommendations for examination of welds. The article concludes with information on the interpretation and analysis of TOFD images with an aid of sizing algorithms. sizing algorithm time-of-flight...
Abstract
Time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD) is an ultrasonic technique used to detect diffracted waves from crack tips and to size the cracks from the arrival times of those waves. This article discusses the basic considerations and provides information on probe selection, gain setting, and instrumentation of TOFD. It describes the numerous effects that result from modifying the probe characteristics. The article provides the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the European Committee for Standardization (CEN), and the International Standardization Organization (ISO) recommendations for the reference blocks according to applicable codes and standards. It also provides the ASME, CEN, and ISO recommendations for examination of welds. The article concludes with information on the interpretation and analysis of TOFD images with an aid of sizing algorithms.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 8
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v08.a0003285
EISBN: 978-1-62708-176-4
... small amplitude. The article also reviews the fretting rig for investigating fretting wear. sliding contact surface damage statistical analysis adhesive wear galling testing button-on-block galling test pin-on-flat galling test threaded connection galling test fretting wear profilometry...
Abstract
Surface damage from sliding contact is related to the adhesion of mating surfaces in contact. This article describes the methods for evaluation of surface damage caused by sliding contact. It defines adhesive wear in terms of asperity, cold welding, galling, scuffing, seizure, and wear coefficient. The article discusses various galling testing methods, such as button-on-block galling test, pin-on-flat galling test, and threaded connection galling test. It provides an overview of fretting wear that occurs between two tight-fitting surfaces subjected to a cyclic, relative motion of extremely small amplitude. The article also reviews the fretting rig for investigating fretting wear.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006469
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
... and gives a measurement of signal attenuation, while the pulse-echo method uses a single transducer that can measure both transit time (distance) and signal amplitude, and hence the attenuation together with other material and defect properties in the volume insonified ( Ref 1 , 2 ). The methods require...
Abstract
This article considers the two primary methods used for ultrasonic inspection: pulse-echo and the transmission methods. Pulse-echo inspection can be accomplished with longitudinal, shear, surface (Rayleigh), or Lamb (plate) waves using a diverse range of transducers. The article discusses the principles of each of these inspection methods. It describes the applications and the basic data formats for single-element transducer-based systems, including A-scans, B-scans, and C-scans. The article provides information on electronic equipment used for ultrasonic inspection. It also describes how specific material conditions produce and modify A-scan indications. The article provides information on the controls and their functions for the display unit of the electronic equipment. It describes the techniques used for the identification and characterization of flaws, namely, surface (Rayleigh) wave and ultrasonic polar scan techniques.
Image
in Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers for Nondestructive Evaluation
> Nondestructive Evaluation of Materials
Published: 01 August 2018
gaging). (b) This double-racetrack coil was used in the EMAT shown in Fig. 3(a) . For the coil in Fig. 3(a) , the central area for the coil in (b) permitted surface current to be induced in the test block primarily in this region. The shield is a grounded conducting sheet many skin depths thick, so
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Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003236
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... and efficient scanning. The skip distance can easily be measured by using a separate receiving transducer to detect the nodes or by using an angle-beam test block, or it can be calculated. The region over which the transducer should be moved to scan the test piece can be determined once the skip distance...
Abstract
Ultrasonic inspection is a nondestructive method in which beams of high-frequency acoustic energy are introduced into a material to detect surface and subsurface flaws, to measure the thickness of the material, and to measure the distance to a flaw. This article provides a detailed account of ultrasonic flaw detectors, including ultrasonic transducers and types of search units and couplants. The article describes pulse-echo and transmission inspection methods and data interpretation. The general characteristics of ultrasonic waves and the factors influencing ultrasonic inspection are also addressed. The article concludes with a review of the advantages and disadvantages of ultrasonic inspection compared with other methods applications of the technique.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 6
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1993
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v06.a0001473
EISBN: 978-1-62708-173-3
... or inches, and the amplitude of signals must be calibrated in dB, relative to some reference reflector. This is achieved using standard calibration blocks that are made from the same material as the test piece and contain reflectors at known distances and of known dimensions. To calibrate the amplitude...
Abstract
This article describes the applications, methods, and limitations of five principal nondestructive test methods, namely, penetrant testing, magnetic-particle testing, eddy current testing, radiographic testing, and ultrasonic testing. The article also provides guidance for the method selection for respective applications.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2003
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13a.a0003669
EISBN: 978-1-62708-182-5
..., amplitude, and distance between the specimen and the vibrating surface in a vibrating fluid—all influence the incubation and intensity of cavitation. The effects of varying these test parameters are described in the following paragraphs. Variations in Velocity and Pressure Variations in velocity...
Abstract
Erosion, cavitation, and impingement are mechanically assisted forms of material degradation that often contribute to corrosive wear. This article identifies and describes several tests that are useful for ranking the service potential of candidate materials under such conditions. The tests, designed by ASTM as G32, G73, G75, and G76, define specimen preparation, test conditions, procedures, and data interpretation. The article examines the relative influence of various test parameters on the incubation and intensity of cavitation, including temperature, pressure, flow velocity, and vibration dynamics. It concludes with a discussion on data correlations and the relationship between laboratory results and service expectations.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006444
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
... heating ( Ref 1 ). In the vibrothermography process, a specimen is vibrated at high amplitude with a transducer or exciter, making contacting surfaces, such as crack and delamination faces, clap and rub. Clapping and rubbing generates heat, which conducts to the specimen surface and is imaged using...
Abstract
Vibrothermography, also known as sonic thermography, sonic infrared (IR), thermosonics, and vibroacoustic thermography, is a nondestructive evaluation (NDE) technique for finding cracks and delaminations through vibration-induced heating. This article describes the four parts of the vibrothermography process: vibration of the specimen by a transducer; conversion of vibrational energy into heat by a crack, delamination, and other contacting surfaces; conduction of the heat to an external surface; and infrared detection of the heat with a thermal camera.
Book: Fractography
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 12
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2024
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v12.a0006877
EISBN: 978-1-62708-387-4
... of crack growth as a single loading block. Fig. 18 SEM images of constant-amplitude (CA) bands between flight blocks of a modified mini-FALSTAFF loading on the fatigue fracture surface of an AA7050-T7451 aluminum alloy specimen. Some of the flight blocks are indicated by arrows in the image at left...
Abstract
This article discusses several examples of fatigue load histories that intentionally create artificial fracture-surface markings during testing such that they are measurable by post-test quantitative fractography (QF). It reviews a number of methods for providing fatigue fracture-surface markers to aid QF of fatigue crack growth (FCG). These methods are based on load changes, including reordering the basic load histories and/or adding loads to them. The article also provides some guidelines for obtaining recognizable FCG markers for a variety of load histories and crack-growth regimes for coupons, components, and, particularly, full-scale fatigue tests.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006470
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
... is accomplished within this distance) is a cycle. The number of cycles in a specific unit of time is the frequency, f , of the waves. The height of a crest or the depth of a trough in relation to the surface at equilibrium is the amplitude of the wave. The velocity of a wave, of a particular type...
Abstract
Ultrasonic inspection is a family of nondestructive methods in which beams of high-frequency mechanical waves are introduced into materials, using transducers, for the detection and characterization of both surface and subsurface anomalies and flaws in the material. This article describes the basic equipment in ultrasonic inspection systems, and lists the advantages and disadvantages of these systems. It discusses the applications of ultrasonic inspection and also the general characteristics of ultrasonic waves in terms of wave propagation, longitudinal waves, transverse waves, surface waves, and lamb waves. The article reviews the major variables in ultrasonic inspection, including frequency, acoustic impedance, angle of incidence, and beam intensity. It discusses the attenuation of ultrasonic beams and provides information on the pulse-echo and transmission methods for implementing ultrasonic inspection.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006658
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... and nanoinfrared microscopy ( Fig. 2 ). Fig. 2 Images of polystyrene (PS)/polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) block copolymer, a sample used to gage the performance of nanoinfrared techniques. Photo-induced force microscopy (PiFM) spectra correlate with the Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra quite nicely...
Abstract
This article focuses on laboratory atomic force microscopes (AFMs) used in ambient air and liquid environments. It begins with a discussion on the origin of AFM and development trends occurring in AFM. This is followed by a section on the general principles of AFM and a comprehensive list of AFM scanning modes. There is a brief description of how each mode works and what types of applications can be made with each mode. Some of the processes involved in preparation of samples (bulk materials and those placed on a substrate) scanned in an AFM are then presented. The article provides information on the factors applicable to the accuracy and precision of AFM measurements. It ends by discussing the applications for AFMs in the fields of science, technology, and engineering.
Book: Fatigue and Fracture
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 19
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1996
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v19.a0002354
EISBN: 978-1-62708-193-1
... max − ε min The corresponding amplitudes of stress and strain are determined as the half ranges. Fig. 3 Primary quantities of the hysteresis loop The plastic strain range Δε pl is equal to the distance between the points of intersection of the hysteresis loop...
Abstract
This article discusses the microstructural processes that take place during plastic deformation and presents a plain phenomenological and general description of the cyclic stress-strain (CSS) response. It emphasizes the microstructural aspects of cyclic loading on single-phase materials tested in initially soft, dislocation-poor conditions resulting from a prior heat treatment. The article discusses deformation-induced phase transformations in austenitic stainless steels and commercial age-hardened aluminum alloys. It describes the interaction of dislocations and the strengthening of second-phase particles. The article also provides a description of the framework used to model the CSS response on a physical basis.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 24A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 June 2023
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v24A.a0006982
EISBN: 978-1-62708-439-0
... been manufactured with the WAAM process. First, a calibration block containing machined flaws of different diameters is used to create an abacus that links the size of a defect to its amplitude in ultrasonic scans. Second, the calibration abacus is validated by cross-correlation with radiography...
Abstract
This article focuses on ultrasonic testing (UT) applied to metallic additive manufacturing (AM) parts, presenting the basic principles of UT. It provides a detailed discussion on postprocess UT inspection of powder-bed-fusion-manufactured samples and directed-energy-deposition-manufactured samples.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14b.a0005158
EISBN: 978-1-62708-186-3
... electrode and workpiece. The sparks travel through a dielectric fluid (typically a light oil) at a controlled distance. Both electrode and work must be electrically conductive. The EDM process has several advantages when machining difficult geometries or materials with poor machinability. Cavities with thin...
Abstract
The electrical discharge machining (EDM) process is used for machining dies because of its ability to machining difficult geometries or materials with poor machinability. This article provides a discussion on the fundamentals of electrical discharge erosion and the principles of EDM and orbital-movement EDM. It discusses various aspects of wire EDM in machining dies and provides an overview of the materials used in EDM electrodes. The article concludes with a discussion on electrochemical machining.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006665
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... The parameters on the right side of Eq 10 and 11 can be classified as scattering parameters (phase shift, ϕ j ( k ); backscattering amplitude, f j (π, k ); and mean free path, λ) and structural parameters (coordination number, N j ; bond distance, r j ; and Debye-Waller factor, σ j ). The summation...
Abstract
This article provides a detailed account of extended x-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS). It begins with a description of the fundamentals of EXAFS, providing information on the physical mechanism, single-scattering approximation, and multiple-scattering effects. This is followed by a discussion on the use of synchrotron radiation as an X-ray source for EXAFS. Data-reduction procedures used to extract EXAFS signals are then described. The article also provides information on the analysis of x-ray absorption near-edge structure spectrum and ends with a discussion on the unique features and applications of EXAFS.
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