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deformation mechanism maps
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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 22A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2009
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v22a.a0005404
EISBN: 978-1-62708-196-2
... breakdown, diffusional creep, twinning during creep deformation, and deformation mechanism maps. It discusses the creep-strengthening mechanisms for most structural engineering components. The article provides a description of the microstructural modeling of creep in engineering alloys. creep...
Abstract
This article, to develop an understanding of the underlying mechanisms governing deformation at elevated temperatures, discusses the phenomenological effects resulting from temperature-induced thermodynamic and kinetic changes. It describes the deformation behavior of engineering materials using expressions known as constitutive equations that relate the dependence of stress, temperature, and microstructure on deformation. The article reviews the characteristics of creep deformation and mechanisms of creep, such as power-law creep, low temperature creep, power-law breakdown, diffusional creep, twinning during creep deformation, and deformation mechanism maps. It discusses the creep-strengthening mechanisms for most structural engineering components. The article provides a description of the microstructural modeling of creep in engineering alloys.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0009003
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... situations encountered in multiaxial stress states. The construction of a processing map based on deformation mechanisms is also discussed. ductile fracture multiaxial stress stress-strain curve workability WORKABILITY refers to the relative ease with which a metal can be shaped through plastic...
Abstract
This article provides the definitions of stress and strain, and describes the relationship between stress and strain by stress-strain curves and true-stress/true-strain curves. The emphasis is on understanding the factors that determine the extent of deformation a metal can withstand before cracking or fracture occurs. The article reviews the process variables that influence the degree of workability and summarizes the mathematical relationships that describe the occurrence of room-temperature ductile fracture under workability conditions. It discusses the most common situations encountered in multiaxial stress states. The construction of a processing map based on deformation mechanisms is also discussed.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0003993
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... superalloys, namely, iron-nickel superalloys, nickel-base alloys, cobalt-base alloys, and powder alloys. The article discusses the microstructural mechanisms during hot deformation and presents processing maps for various superalloys. It concludes with a discussion on heat treatment of wrought heat-resistant...
Abstract
This article provides a discussion on forging methods, melting procedures, forging equipment, forging practices, grain refinement, and critical factors considered in forging process. It describes the different types of solid-solution-strengthened and precipitation-strengthened superalloys, namely, iron-nickel superalloys, nickel-base alloys, cobalt-base alloys, and powder alloys. The article discusses the microstructural mechanisms during hot deformation and presents processing maps for various superalloys. It concludes with a discussion on heat treatment of wrought heat-resistant alloy forgings.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 8
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v08.a0003287
EISBN: 978-1-62708-176-4
... present compelling evidence that dislocations interact strongly with particles on a very local scale. Deformation Mechanism Maps The mechanisms of dislocation glide, dislocation climb, and diffusional flow exhibit different stress and temperature dependencies. Thus, the relative contribution...
Abstract
Creep deformation is normally studied by applying either a constant load or a constant true stress to a material at a sufficiently high homologous temperature so that a measurable amount of creep strain occurs in a reasonable time. This article provides the phenomenological descriptions of creep and explains the testing and mechanism of creep in crystalline solids. It also presents information on the creep response of crystalline and amorphous solids.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 8
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v08.a0003288
EISBN: 978-1-62708-176-4
... from data in order to calculate absolute values of creep rates (see “Deformation-Mechanism Maps” in this article for a discussion on how the power-law regime may vary for a material). Creep deformation results also indicate that the values for n and Q in Eq 2 are both variable with respect...
Abstract
This article reviews the basic equipment and methods for creep and creep rupture testing. It begins with a discussion on the creep properties, including stress and temperature dependence, as well as of the extrapolation techniques that permit estimation of the long-term creep and rupture strengths of materials. The article describes the different types of equipment for determination of creep characteristics, including test stands, furnaces, and extensometers. It also discusses the different testing methods for creep rupture: constant-load testing and constant-stress testing. The article presents other testing considerations and concludes with information on stress relaxation testing.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 6
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1993
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v06.a0001348
EISBN: 978-1-62708-173-3
... considering the compression needed to bond dissimilar materials, the deformation-mechanism map work of Frost and Ashby ( Ref 65 ) is helpful. The maps are in a stress/temperature space in which a single deformation mechanism is dominant. The stress used is a normalized tensile stress (tensile stress/shear...
Abstract
This article reviews quantifying adhesion, bonding, and interfacial characterization and strength in a solid-state welding process. It discusses metal-metal configurations and provides information on experimental work carried out in measuring the mechanical properties of interfaces based on theoretical analysis. A discussion on the properties affecting adhesion is also provided.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003225
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
...Abstract Abstract Analysis of the failure of a metal structure or part usually requires identification of the type of failure. Failure can occur by one or more of several mechanisms, including surface damage (such as corrosion or wear), elastic or plastic distortion, and fracture. This leads...
Abstract
Analysis of the failure of a metal structure or part usually requires identification of the type of failure. Failure can occur by one or more of several mechanisms, including surface damage (such as corrosion or wear), elastic or plastic distortion, and fracture. This leads to a wide range of failures, including fatigue failure, distortion failure, wear failure, corrosion failure, stress-corrosion cracking, liquid-metal embrittlement, hydrogen-damage failure, corrosion-fatigue failure, and elevated-temperature failure. This article describes the classification of fractures on a macroscopic scale as ductile fractures, brittle fractures, fatigue fractures, and fractures resulting from the combined effects of stress and environment.
Book: Powder Metallurgy
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 7
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 September 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v07.a0006140
EISBN: 978-1-62708-175-7
.... Frost H.J. and Ashby M.F. , Deformation Mechanism Maps , Pergamon Press , UK , 1982 27. Ashby M.F. , A first report of sintering diagrams , Acta Metall. , Vol 22 , 1974 , p 275 – 284 28. Arzt E. , Ashby M.F. , and Easterling Practical K.E...
Abstract
Prealloyed (PA) powder metallurgy is a technique where complex near-net shape titanium aircraft components are fabricated with low buy-to-fly ratios. This article describes the physical principle, mechanism, and simulation and modeling of metal can and hot isostatic pressing (HIP) processes involved in the PA powder metallurgy technique. It discusses the technical problems addressed in shape control and their solutions for understanding the advantages of powder metallurgy HIP.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006807
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... Society of Mechanical Engineers , 2019 5. Frost H.J. and Ashby M.F. , Deformation-Mechanism Maps: The Plasticity and Creep of Metals and Ceramics , Pergamon Press , 1982 6. Mechanical Testing and Evaluation , Vol 8 , ASM Handbook , ASM International , 2000 10.31399...
Abstract
This article provides some new developments in elevated-temperature and life assessments. It is aimed at providing an overview of the damage mechanisms of concern, with a focus on creep, and the methodologies for design and in-service assessment of components operating at elevated temperatures. The article describes the stages of the creep curve, discusses processes involved in the extrapolation of creep data, and summarizes notable creep constitutive models and continuum damage mechanics models. It demonstrates the effects of stress relaxation and redistribution on the remaining life and discusses the Monkman-Grant relationship and multiaxiality. The article further provides information on high-temperature metallurgical changes and high-temperature hydrogen attack and the steps involved in the remaining-life prediction of high-temperature components. It presents case studies on heater tube creep testing and remaining-life assessment, and pressure vessel time-dependent stress analysis showing the effect of stress relaxation at hot spots.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 22B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2010
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v22b.a0005509
EISBN: 978-1-62708-197-9
... International Conference on Hot Isostatic Pressing , 2008 4. Frost H.J. and Ashby M.F. , Deformation Mechanism Maps , Pergamon Press , United Kingdom , 1982 5. Laptev A. , Samarov V. , and Podlesny S. , Parameters of Hot Isostatic Pressing of Porous Materials...
Abstract
This article discusses the two major applications of hot isostatic pressing (HIP), such as healing of inherent internal defects in castings and welds, and consolidation of powder materials. It describes the design principles of the HIP tooling, as well as the problems associated with mathematical modeling of HIP. The article presents an example for the modeling process of the HIP. It reviews the numerical modeling and tooling design of a casing component demonstration.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004020
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... mechanisms during restoration via dynamic recovery at hot-working strain rates. However, it is a reasonable assumption that the basic softening events, characterizing constant-rate testing at low and intermediate temperatures and also creep, are relevant even under the conditions of hot deformation...
Abstract
The constitutive relations for metalworking include elements of behavior at ambient temperature as well as high-temperature response. This article presents equations for strain hardening and strain-rate-sensitive flow, with alternate sections on empirically determined properties, followed by the models of constitutive behavior. It provides a discussion on creep mechanisms involving dislocation and diffusional flow, such as the Nabarro-Herring creep and the Coble creep. The equations for the several creep rates are also presented. Research on the mechanism of the superplastic flow in fine-grain metals has encompassed many ideas, such as the diffusional creep, dislocation creep with diffusional accommodation at grain boundaries, and concepts of grain-mantle deformation. The article concludes with information on the kinetics of superplastic deformation processes, including low stress behavior, concurrent grain growth, and high stress behavior.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14b.a0005183
EISBN: 978-1-62708-186-3
... properties, followed by models of constitutive behavior. These models include the isothermal constitutive model and the physical model for superplastic flow. A formal description of the superposition of the operative mechanisms for dynamic recovery at hot-working strain rates is also provided. The article...
Abstract
Constitutive relations for metal-working include elements of behavior at ambient temperature as well as high-temperature response. This article presents the equations for the strain hardening and strain-rate-sensitive flow, with alternate sections on empirically determined properties, followed by models of constitutive behavior. These models include the isothermal constitutive model and the physical model for superplastic flow. A formal description of the superposition of the operative mechanisms for dynamic recovery at hot-working strain rates is also provided. The article describes creep mechanisms that are useful for illustrating the strong stress dependence of dislocation and diffusional flow.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006824
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
...-base superalloys are typically used for components in these high-temperature regions of the gas turbine. There are multiple mechanisms by which creep manifests in a material. For each alloy, the creep mechanism can be predicted by using a deformation mechanism map ( Fig. 2 ). Fig. 2...
Abstract
This article focuses on common failures of the components associated with the flow path of industrial gas turbines. Examples of steam turbine blade failures are also discussed, because these components share some similarities with gas turbine blading. Some of the analytical methods used in the laboratory portion of the failure investigation are mentioned in the failure examples. The topics covered are creep, localized overheating, thermal-mechanical fatigue, high-cycle fatigue, fretting wear, erosive wear, high-temperature oxidation, hot corrosion, liquid metal embrittlement, and manufacturing and repair deficiencies.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 22B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2010
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v22b.a0005506
EISBN: 978-1-62708-197-9
.... Akad. Nauk. SSR, Otd Tekh., Nauk , No. 8 , 1958 , p 26 – 31 32. Rabotnov Y.N. , Creep Problems in Structural Members , North Holland , Amsterdam , 1969 33. Ashby M.F. , A First Report on Deformation-Mechanism Maps , Acta Metall. , Vol 20 , 1972 , p 887 – 897 34...
Abstract
This article summarizes many approaches that are used to simulate relaxation of bulk residual stresses in components. It presents analytical examples to highlight the complexity of residual stress and strain distributions observed in simple geometries, with ideal material behavior and trivial loading and boundary conditions. The article discusses approximate and advanced solution techniques that can be employed in practice for simulation of residual stress relief: finite-difference method and finite-element method. It also describes advanced techniques applicable to transient creep, advanced constitutive models, and complicated stress and temperature loading histories.
Book: Fatigue and Fracture
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 19
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1996
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v19.a0002352
EISBN: 978-1-62708-193-1
... ) and Ghandi and Ashby ( Ref 6 ) constructed a series of deformation mechanism maps for crystalline materials. Several of these maps are shown in Fig. 3 ( Ref 7 ). They classified brittle fractures into three distinct types: modes I, II, and III. (These are different from the three modes of crack growth...
Abstract
This article provides a brief description of the different types of micromechanisms of monotonic and cyclic fracture. General information on the material variables that have the most beneficial effect on resistance to failure is presented. The article discusses the various stages, growth rates, and striation spacings of fatigue crack. The mechanisms of fatigue striation formation are also discussed. The fatigue crack growth in duplex microstructures and cyclic crack growth in polymers are reviewed. The article also describes the mechanisms and models of fatigue crack closure.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006789
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... by p / H ) is typically larger than 0.1; from Fig. 6(a) it is predicted that wear is largely dominated by plastic deformation. The mapping approach is quite useful for understanding the wear mechanisms and transitions for steels commonly used for wheels and rails. Figure 11 shows the wear map...
Abstract
This article considers the main characteristics of wear mechanisms and how they can be identified. Some identification examples are reported, with the warning that this task can be difficult because of the presence of disturbing factors such as contaminants or possible additional damage of the worn products after the tribological process. Then, the article describes some examples of wear processes, considering possible transitions and/or interactions of the mechanism of fretting wear, rolling-sliding wear, abrasive wear, and solid-particle erosion wear. The role of tribological parameters on the material response is presented using the wear map concept, which is very useful and informative in several respects. The article concludes with guidelines for the selection of suitable surface treatments to avoid wear failures.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 20
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1997
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v20.a0002477
EISBN: 978-1-62708-194-8
..., there are two competing failure modes: ductile and brittle ( Fig. 6 ). With increasingly constrained stress states (uniaxial → biaxial → triaxial), the tendency for brittle failure tends to increase. Brittle failure occurs when the brittle failure mechanism occurs prior to ductile deformation ( Fig. 6...
Abstract
The key to any successful part development is the proper choice of material, process, and design matched to the part performance requirements. Understanding the true effects of time, temperature, and rate of loading on material performance can make the difference between a successful application and catastrophic failure. This article provides examples of reliable material performance indicators and common practices to avoid failure. Simple tools and techniques for predicting part mechanical performance integrated with manufacturing concerns, such as flow length and cycle time, are demonstrated. The article describes the prediction of mechanical part performance for stiffness, strength/impact, creep/stress relaxation, and fatigue.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 20
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1997
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v20.a0002472
EISBN: 978-1-62708-194-8
... ). These various processes of creep (dislocation controlled as well as diffusion controlled) may be represented on a deformation mechanism map to highlight regimes of stress and temperature where each mechanism, based on current theories, may be operating ( Ref 17 ). However, such maps are only as good...
Abstract
This article reviews the basic mechanisms of elevated-temperature behavior and associated design considerations, with an emphasis on metals. It discusses the key concepts of elevated-temperature design. These include plastic instability at elevated temperatures; deformation mechanisms and strain components associated with creep processes; stress and temperature dependence; fracture at elevated temperatures; and environmental effects. The article describes the basic presentation and analysis methods for creep rupture. It provides information on the application of these methods to materials selection and the setting of basic design rules. The article examines the limitations of high-temperature components as well as the alternative design approaches and tests for most high-temperature components.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004017
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... are constructed chiefly by using the best mechanistic models of each fracture process. For more on high-temperature fracture mechanisms, see Ref 15 . Fig. 10 Fracture mechanism map for nickel Failure in deformation processing at below 0.5 T m occurs by ductile fracture. The three stages...
Abstract
This article focuses on the factors that determine the extent of deformation a metal can withstand before cracking or fracture occurs. It informs that workability depends on the local conditions of stress, strain, strain rate, and temperature in combination with material factors. The article discusses the common testing techniques and process variables for workability prediction. It illustrates the simple and most widely used fracture criterion proposed by Cockcroft and Latham and provides a workability analysis using the fracture limit line. The article describes various workability tests, such as the tension test, ring compression test, plane-strain compression test, bend test, indentation test, and forgeability test. It concludes with information on the role of the finite-element modeling software used in workability analysis.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004013
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... to represent the actual deformation conditions for the process variables employed. Results of these calculations are expressed in the form of processing maps such as that shown in Fig. 10 . In this example, the ordinate is the interfacial friction factor, representing the ratio of the friction stress...
Abstract
Coextrusion is defined as the simultaneous extrusion of two or more metals to form an integral product that can be carried out using conventional extrusion or drawing equipment at a temperature appropriate to the metal system being formed. This article discusses the applications, billet configurations, and metal flow modes of coextrusion. It presents the analytical studies of coextrusion: deformation energy methods, lower-bound (slab) analyses, upper-bound analyses, and finite-element analyses. These studies are used to identify the regime of material properties and process variables for which sound extrusions can be obtained. The article concludes with a discussion on the state-of-the-art of coextrusion that assists in developing process models, which accurately describe both the macroscopic and microscopic aspects of a process.