Failure analysis is generally defined as the investigation and analysis of parts or structures that have failed or appeared to have failed to perform their intended duty. Methods of field inspection and initial examination are also critical factors for both reconstruction analysts and materials failure analysts. This article focuses on the general methods and approaches from the perspective of a reconstruction analyst. It describes the elements of accident reconstruction, which have conceptual similarity with the principles for failure analysis of material incidents that are less complex than a large-scale accident. The approach presented is that the analysis and reconstruction is based on the physical evidence. The article provides a brief review of some general concepts on the use and limitations of advanced data acquisition tools and computer modeling. Legal implications of destructive testing are discussed in detail.

The development of quantitative fractography (QF) parameters basically requires topological data of a fracture surface that can be derived from the stereological analysis of multiple projected scanning electron microscope (SEM) images; the profilometry-based techniques that measure the fracture surface profile along x-y sections of a fracture surface from metallographic sections or nondestructive techniques; and the three-dimensional reconstruction of the fracture surface topology using imaging methods such as stereo SEM imaging and confocal scanning laser microscopy. These three general methods of assessing fracture surface topology are reviewed in this article.

Computed tomography (CT) is an imaging technique that generates a three-dimensional (3-D) volumetric image of a test piece. This article illustrates the basic principles of CT and provides information on the types, applications, and capabilities of CT systems. A comparison of performance characteristics for film radiography, real-time radiography, and X-ray computed tomography is presented in a table. A functional block diagram of a typical computed tomography system is provided. The article discusses CT scanning geometry that is used to acquire the necessary transmission data. It also provides information on digital radiography, image processing and analysis, dual-energy imaging, and partial angle imaging, of a CT system.

Three-dimensional microscopy can be used to reveal the shape, distribution, and connectivity of three-dimensional (3D) features that lie buried within an opaque material. This article discusses several experimental techniques that can be used to generate 3D images. These include serial sectioning, focused ion beam tomography, atom probe tomography, and X-ray microtomography. Nine case studies are presented that represent the work of the various research groups currently working on 3D microscopy using serial sectioning and illustrate the variants of the basic experimental techniques. The article also discusses the techniques for reconstruction and visualization of 3D microstructures with advanced computer software and hardware.

This article focuses on the general methods and approaches from the perspective of a reconstruction analyst and includes discussions relevant to materials failure analysts at the incident scene. The elements of accident reconstruction are described. These have conceptual similarity with the principles for failure analysis of material incidents that are less complex than a large-scale accident. The article provides a brief review of some general concepts on the use of modeling which can be a very powerful tool for information pertaining to the reconstruction of an accident where the model can be a physical, mathematical, or logical representation of a physical system or process.

This article reviews the characterization methods for producing 3-D microstructural data sets. The methods include serial sectioning by mechanical material removal method and focused ion beam tomography method. The article describes how these data sets are used in realistic 3-D simulations of microstructural evolution during materials processing and materials response. It also explains how the 3-D experimental data are actually input and used in the simulations using phase-field modeling and finite-element modeling.

Bridging the gap between education and medical practice, centralized hospital-based 3D printing, or what is termed point-of-care (POC) manufacturing, has been rapidly growing in the United States as well as internationally. This article provides insights into the considerations and the current workflow of creating 3D-printed anatomical models at the POC. Case studies are introduced to show the complex range of anatomical models that can be produced while also exploring how patient care benefits. It describes the advanced form of communication in medicine. The advantages as well as pitfalls of using the patient-specific 3D-printed models at the POC are addressed, demonstrating the fundamental knowledge needed to create 3D-printed anatomical models through POC manufacturing.

Powder-bed additive manufacturing (AM) processes are some of the most commonly used techniques, necessitating the accurate measurement of powder flowability properties. This article discusses some powder flow tests that occur in powder-bed AM machines. These include the Hall/Carney flow test, bulk/tap density, rheometer, and the revolving or rotating drum technique. The three categories of powder properties that are available from rheometer experiments are discussed: bulk, dynamic flow, and shear properties. The article also describes the basic principles and applications of micro-X-ray computed tomography in studying powder porosity characteristics nondestructively.

This article provides highlights of the general process and workflow of creating a 3D-printed model from a medical image and discusses the applications of additively manufactured materials. It provides a brief background on Food and Drug Administration (FDA) classification and regulation of medical devices, with an emphasis on 3D-printed devices. Then, the article discusses two broad applications of 3D printing in craniofacial surgery: surgery and education. Next, it discusses, with respect to surgical applications, preoperative planning, use in the operating room, surgical guides, and implants. The article includes sections on education that focus on the use of 3D-printed surgical simulators and other tools to teach medical students and residents. It briefly touches on the FDA regulations associated with the respective application of 3D printing in medicine. Lastly, the article briefly discusses the state of medical billing and reimbursement for this service.