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in Elevated-Temperature Properties of Stainless Steels
> Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels, and High-Performance Alloys
Published: 01 January 1990
Fig. 34 Comparison of linear damage rule of creep-fatigue interaction with design envelopes in ASME Code Case N-47 for 304 and 316 stainless steel. Creep-damage fraction = time/time-to-rupture (multiplied by a safety factor). Fatigue-damage fraction = number of cycles/cycles to failures
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in Fatigue, Creep Fatigue, and Thermomechanical Fatigue Life Testing
> Mechanical Testing and Evaluation
Published: 01 January 2000
Fig. 29 Creep-fatigue interaction effects on isothermal cyclic life of AISI type 304 stainless steel tested in air at 650 °C (1200 °F), normal straining rate of 4 × 10 −3 s −1 . After Ref 65
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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006780
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
.... The article also reviews various factors related to creep behavior and associated failures of materials used in high-temperature applications. The complex effects of creep-fatigue interaction, microstructural changes during classical creep, and nondestructive creep damage assessment of metallic materials...
Abstract
The principal types of elevated-temperature mechanical failure are creep and stress rupture, stress relaxation, low- and high-cycle fatigue, thermal fatigue, tension overload, and combinations of these, as modified by environment. This article briefly reviews the applied aspects of creep-related failures, where the mechanical strength of a material becomes limited by creep rather than by its elastic limit. The majority of information provided is applicable to metallic materials, and only general information regarding creep-related failures of polymeric materials is given. The article also reviews various factors related to creep behavior and associated failures of materials used in high-temperature applications. The complex effects of creep-fatigue interaction, microstructural changes during classical creep, and nondestructive creep damage assessment of metallic materials are also discussed. The article describes the fracture characteristics of stress rupture. Information on various metallurgical instabilities is also provided. The article presents a description of thermal-fatigue cracks, as distinguished from creep-rupture cracks.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003545
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... deformation, including stress-rupture fractures. It also describes metallurgical instabilities, such as aging and carbide reactions, and evaluates the complex effects of creep-fatigue interaction. The article concludes with a discussion on thermal fatigue and creep fatigue failures. aging carbide...
Abstract
This article reviews the applied aspects of creep and stress-rupture failures. It discusses the microstructural changes and bulk mechanical behavior of classical and nonclassical creep behavior. The article provides a description of microstructural changes and damage from creep deformation, including stress-rupture fractures. It also describes metallurgical instabilities, such as aging and carbide reactions, and evaluates the complex effects of creep-fatigue interaction. The article concludes with a discussion on thermal fatigue and creep fatigue failures.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 8
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v08.a0003314
EISBN: 978-1-62708-176-4
... load cells extensometry strain measuring devices environmental chambers graphic recorders furnaces heating systems baseline isothermal fatigue testing creep-fatigue interaction thermomechanical fatigue fatigue resistance Fatigue closed loop control advanced software tools fatigue life...
Abstract
This article describes the phenomena of crack initiation and early growth. It examines specimen design and preparation as well as the apparatus used in crack initiation testing. The article provides descriptions of the various commercially available fatigue testing machines: axial fatigue testing machines and bending fatigue machines. Load cells, grips and alignment devices, extensometry and strain measuring devices, environmental chambers, graphic recorders, furnaces, and heating systems of ancillary equipment are discussed. The article presents technologies available to accomplish closed loop control of materials testing systems in performing standard materials tests and for the development of custom testing applications. It explores the advanced software tools for materials testing. The article includes a description of baseline isothermal fatigue testing, creep-fatigue interaction, and thermomechanical fatigue. The effects of various variables on fatigue resistance and guidelines for fatigue testing are also presented.
Image
in Elevated-Temperature Properties of Stainless Steels
> Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels, and High-Performance Alloys
Published: 01 January 1990
Fig. 33 Design fatigue-strain range curves for 340 and 316 stainless steel. (a) Design curves with continuous cycling (pure fatigue). (b) Design curves with hold times (creep-fatigue interaction)
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Image
Published: 01 January 1996
Fig. 33 Design fatigue-strain range curves for 304 and 316 stainless steel. (a) Design curves with continuous cycling (pure fatigue). (b) Design curves with hold times (creep-fatigue interaction)
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Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1990
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v01.a0001035
EISBN: 978-1-62708-161-0
... an important factor that influences notch sensitivity and creep-fatigue interaction. The types of tests used to evaluate the mechanical properties of steels at elevated temperatures include: Short-term elevated-temperature tests Long-term elevated-temperature tests Fatigue tests (including...
Abstract
This article discusses some elevated-temperature properties of carbon steels and low-alloy steels with ferrite-pearlite and ferrite-bainite microstructures for use in boiler tubes, pressure vessels, and steam turbines. The selection of steels to be used at elevated temperatures generally involves compromise between the higher efficiencies obtained at higher operating temperatures and the cost of equipment, including materials, fabrication, replacement, and downtime costs. The article considers the low-alloy steels which are the creep-resistant steels with 0.5 to 1.0% Mo combined with 0.5 to 9.0% Cr and perhaps other carbide formers. The factors affecting mechanical properties of steels include the nature of strengthening mechanisms, the microstructure, the heat treatment, and the alloy composition. The article describes these factors, with particular emphasis on chromium-molybdenum steels used for elevated-temperature service. Although the mechanical properties establish the allowable design-stress levels, corrosion effects at elevated temperatures often set the maximum allowable service temperature of an alloy. The article also discusses the effects of alloying elements in annealed, normalized and tempered, and quenched and tempered steels.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1990
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v01.a0001048
EISBN: 978-1-62708-161-0
.... For temperatures above 480 °C (900 °F), the design process must include other properties such as creep rate, creep-rupture strength, creep-rupture ductility, and creep-fatigue interaction. Mechanical data of various steels at elevated temperatures are available in the ASTM data series (DS) listed in Table 2...
Abstract
Stainless steels are widely used at elevated temperatures when carbon and low-alloy steels do not provide adequate corrosion resistance and/or sufficient strength at these temperatures. This article deals with the wrought stainless steels used for high temperature applications. It gives some typical compositions of wrought heat-resistant stainless steels, which are grouped into ferritic, martensitic, austenitic, and precipitation-hardening (PH) grades. Quenched and tempered martensitic stainless steels are essentially martensitic and harden when air cooled from the austenitizing temperature. These alloys offer good combinations of mechanical properties. The article focuses on mechanical property considerations and corrosion resistance considerations of stainless steels. The corrosion and oxidation resistance of wrought stainless steels is similar to that of cast stainless steels with comparable compositions.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 8
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v08.a0003307
EISBN: 978-1-62708-176-4
... propagation mechanisms ( Ref 3 ). Therefore, the interaction of creep and fatigue damage is an important concern in structural life assessments. There is also an increasing demand to develop methods of increasing the service life of existing systems, as well as to develop more accurate techniques...
Abstract
Predicting the service life of structural components involves creep-fatigue crack growth (CFCG) testing under pure creep conditions. This article provides a discussion on the loading condition and the type of ductile and brittle material showing creep behavior. It focuses on a description of the experimental method that should be followed in conducting tests of CFCG with various hold times. The article describes the testing conditions, definitions, and the necessary calculations of various crack-tip parameters considered during static and cyclic loading in time-dependent fracture mechanics. The parameters considered for static loading are C*, C(t), C*(t), C*h, Ct, and Cst(t). For cyclic loading, the parameters are delta Jc and (Ct)avg. An overview of life-prediction models is also provided.
Book: Fatigue and Fracture
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 19
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1996
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v19.a0002389
EISBN: 978-1-62708-193-1
... experienced by components can also involve cyclic loading and unloading at elevated temperatures. Hence, in these situations, crack growth occurs not only under static loading (creep conditions), but creep-fatigue interactions play a major role in the initiation and growth of cracks. Components operating...
Abstract
This article describes the concepts for characterizing and predicting elevated-temperature crack growth in structural materials. It discusses both creep and creep-fatigue crack growth and focuses mainly on creep crack growth tests that are carried out in accordance with ASTM E 1457. The article provides information on typical test procedures and equipment used for these tests. It concludes with information on crack growth correlations.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 20
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1997
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v20.a0002472
EISBN: 978-1-62708-194-8
... analysis will be confined to presenting data in the form that a designer might use, with emphasis on design principles rather than detailed design analysis. Thus, multiaxial stresses, part analysis, and creep-fatigue interaction are not formally treated. However, remaining life assessment and the effect...
Abstract
This article reviews the basic mechanisms of elevated-temperature behavior and associated design considerations, with an emphasis on metals. It discusses the key concepts of elevated-temperature design. These include plastic instability at elevated temperatures; deformation mechanisms and strain components associated with creep processes; stress and temperature dependence; fracture at elevated temperatures; and environmental effects. The article describes the basic presentation and analysis methods for creep rupture. It provides information on the application of these methods to materials selection and the setting of basic design rules. The article examines the limitations of high-temperature components as well as the alternative design approaches and tests for most high-temperature components.
Book: Fatigue and Fracture
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 19
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1996
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v19.a0002413
EISBN: 978-1-62708-193-1
... and Attarwala ( Ref 23 ). All the experimental data suggest that the continuously evolving internal structure has a critical influence on the behavior of solders, especially when fatigue load conditions are applied. A fatigue model of solders, if predictive, should incorporate the overall creep behavior...
Abstract
This article focuses on the isothermal fatigue of solder materials. It discusses the effect of strain range, frequency, hold time, temperature, and environment on isothermal fatigue life. The article provides information on various isothermal fatigue testing methods used to assess solder joint reliability. These include the accelerated thermal cycling test and isothermal mechanical deflection system test.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003225
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... effects could be evident at elevated temperatures, and material instabilities ocassionally can contribute to the response. Creep fatigue interactions also can alter an assumed “simple” fatigue situation to a considerable degree. Fig. 18 Low-cycle fatigue curves for superalloys at 850 °C (1560 °F...
Abstract
Analysis of the failure of a metal structure or part usually requires identification of the type of failure. Failure can occur by one or more of several mechanisms, including surface damage (such as corrosion or wear), elastic or plastic distortion, and fracture. This leads to a wide range of failures, including fatigue failure, distortion failure, wear failure, corrosion failure, stress-corrosion cracking, liquid-metal embrittlement, hydrogen-damage failure, corrosion-fatigue failure, and elevated-temperature failure. This article describes the classification of fractures on a macroscopic scale as ductile fractures, brittle fractures, fatigue fractures, and fractures resulting from the combined effects of stress and environment.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 22A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2009
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v22a.a0005411
EISBN: 978-1-62708-196-2
... THERE ARE NUMEROUS APPLICATIONS in the modern engineering world that involve the use of metals under conditions of cyclic loading in operating conditions that can cause creep and/or environmental interactions with time-independent, mechanical fatigue processes. The interrelationships between the various damage...
Abstract
The overarching goal of life-prediction research is to develop models for the various types of time dependencies in the crack-tip damage accumulation that occur in materials subjected to elevated temperatures. This article focuses on describing the models based on creep, oxidation kinetics, evolution of crack-tip stress fields due to creep, oxygen ingress, and change in the microstructure. It also provides a summary of creep-fatigue modeling approaches.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003546
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... changes, which thus impose fatigue damage. In this case, it is customary to consider each flight to be one fatigue cycle with an imposed hold time, so in addition to creep and fatigue acting independently, there are creep-fatigue interactions (which are also influenced to a very significant degree...
Abstract
Thermomechanical fatigue (TMF) refers to the process of fatigue damage under simultaneous changes in temperature and mechanical strain. This article reviews the process of TMF with a practical example of life assessment. It describes TMF damages caused due to two possible types of loading: in-phase and out-of-phase cycling. The article illustrates the ways in which damage can interact at high and low temperatures and the development of microstructurally based models in parametric form. It presents a case study of the prediction of residual life in a turbine casing of a ship through stress analysis and fracture mechanics analyses of the casing.
Book: Fatigue and Fracture
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 19
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1996
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v19.a0002391
EISBN: 978-1-62708-193-1
... in the TMF OP case was nearly a factor of five, whereas in the TMF IP case the lives were not significantly influenced. The results are shown in Fig. 13 . Under conditions where creep mechanisms are dominant compared to environmental interaction effects, the fatigue life in air is about the same...
Abstract
Structural alloys are commonly subjected to a variety of thermal and thermomechanical loads. This article provides an overview of the experimental methods in thermal fatigue (TF) and thermomechanical fatigue (TMF) and presents experimental results on the structural materials that have been considered in TF and TMF research. Life prediction models and constitutive equations suited for TF and TMF are covered. The structural materials discussed include carbon steels, low-alloy steels, stainless steels, aluminum alloys, and nickel-base high-temperature alloys. The article explains crack initiation and crack propagation in TF and TMF. It describes thermal ratcheting and thermal shock behavior of structural metallic materials. The article concludes with information on life prediction of structural materials under TF and TMF.
Book: Fatigue and Fracture
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 19
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1996
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v19.a0002410
EISBN: 978-1-62708-193-1
... to maximum and back to zero. For some military engines, thrust settings are varied so greatly that they can also be considered as a fatigue cycle. Turbine components thus experience thermomechanical loading and fatigue as well as creep-fatigue interactions. The good combination of strength and toughness...
Abstract
This article discusses fracture, fatigue, and creep of nickel-base superalloys with additional emphasis on directionally solidified and single-crystal applications. It analyzes the physical metallurgy of these alloys. The effects of grain boundary and grain size on failure are summarized. The article also discusses the effects of microstructure and extrinsic parameters on fatigue crack propagation (FCP). It details the modeling of FCP rates and creep and creep-fatigue crack growth rates.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003521
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... is not necessarily complete because it does not point to the specific environment that results in a fatigue damage mode. Instead, specific mechanisms that can result in a fatigue damage mode have to be examined. Examples include corrosion fatigue, thermomechanical fatigue, creep-fatigue interaction, and mechanical...
Abstract
This article describes the two critical goals in a failure investigation: damage mechanisms and damage modes. It explains the determination of primary and secondary damage mechanisms and discusses the methodology used to classify the damage mechanisms.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006756
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... mechanisms that can result in a fatigue damage mode must be examined. Examples include corrosion fatigue, thermomechanical fatigue, vibrationally induced fatigue, creep-fatigue interaction, and fatigue induced only by mechanical cyclic stresses. Determination of damage mechanisms starts by characterizing...
Abstract
The principal task of a failure analyst during a physical-cause investigation is to identify the sequence of events involved in the failure. Technical skills and tools are required for such identification, but the analyst also needs a mental organizational framework that helps evaluate the significance of observations. This article discusses the processes involved in the characterization and identification of damage and damage mechanisms. It describes the relationships between damage causes, mechanisms, and modes with examples. In addition, some of the more prevalent and encompassing characterization approaches and categorization methods of damage mechanism are also covered.
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