This article discusses the fundamentals of friction stir welding (FSW) and presents governing equations and an analytical solution for heat transfer. It provides the solutions for structural distortion in FSW. The article describes various techniques that have been adopted to solve the equations and simulate the FSW process. The techniques include modeling without convective heat transfer and modeling with convective heat transfer in a workpiece. The article concludes with information on active research topics in the simulation of FSW.

This article provides information on the heat-source model, conduction heat-transfer model of parts and fixtures, and the radiation heat-transfer and convection heat-transfer models in a furnace. It describes the two types of furnaces used for heat treating: batch furnaces and continuous furnaces. The heating methods, such as direct-fired heating, radiant-tube heating, and electrical heating, are also discussed. Furnace temperature control is essential to ensure quality heat treatment. The article explains the operating procedure of the automatic temperature controllers used in most furnace operations. Heating simulations can be validated by comparison with measured results in full-scale furnaces. The article also presents several case studies to illustrate the use of the simulations.

This article is a comprehensive collection of formulas, tables, and analytical solutions, addressing hundreds of heat-transfer scenarios encountered in science and engineering. With detailed explanations and dimensioned drawings, the article demonstrates how to set up and solve real-world problems, accounting for material properties, environmental variables, boundary and state conditions, and the primary modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. The article also includes reference data and provides closed-form solutions for common heat-transfer applications such as insulated pipes, cooling fins, radiation shields, and composite structures and configurations.

Temperature is a typical parameter characterizing the heating level of any particle belonging to a heated body. The basic problem of heat transfer computation is associated with appropriate determination of heat transfer coefficients. This article provides a discussion on the basic equations, initial and boundary conditions, and multiple reflection phenomena of mathematical modeling. These boundary conditions include the Dirichlet, Neumann, and Henkel conditions.

This article is a comprehensive collection of formulas, tables, and analytical solutions, addressing hundreds of heat-transfer scenarios encountered in science and engineering. It also demonstrates how to set up and solve real-world problems, while accounting for material properties, environmental variables, boundary and state conditions, and the primary modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation.

Induction heating computations deal with a multiphysics problem containing analysis of several coupled physical fields such as electromagnetic, temperature, mechanical, and metallurgical. In order to solve coupled electromagnetic-temperature field problems, it is necessary to develop suitable algorithms and numerical procedures, which make it possible to deal with these nonlinear coupled problems. This article focuses on the most common approaches to coupled electromagnetic and heat transfer problems, namely, weak-, quasi-, and hard-coupled formulations.

Induction heating is a combination of several interrelated physical phenomena, including heat transfer, electromagnetics, and metallurgy. This article presents a brief review of different heat transfer modes, namely, heat conduction, thermal radiation, and convection. It focuses on the specifics of induction heating and heat treating applications. The article discusses the nonlinear and interrelated nature of a particular heat transfer phenomenon, physical property, and skin effect. It also presents simple case studies and general physical laws governing different heat transfer modes. The article also discusses the basic concepts of direct current and alternating current circuits, and reviews the theory of electromagnetic fields.

This article presents the modes of heat transfer and the stages of cooling during quenching. It provides an overview on the wetting process and then focuses on the evaluation of heat transfer during quenching. It also presents the challenges of thermal process evaluation based on an inverse heat conduction analysis. The article contains a compilation of best practice examples on heat transfer evaluation, which are intended to represent the practical aspects and applicability of the methods aiming the prediction of heat-transfer coefficients.

The most popular metal hot working processes for which induction heating is applied are forging, forming, extrusion, and rolling. This article focuses on estimation techniques to determine basic induction heating process parameters, including coil power, length of heating line, and frequency selection. It discusses three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation, in induction heating. The article describes the factors affected by a distortion of the magnetic field at the coil end through a schematic illustration of distribution of three magnetic force components experienced by the turns of the coil. It concludes with information on some case studies of numerical simulation.

Intensive quenching (IQ) is an alternative method of hardening steel parts, providing extremely high cooling rates within the martensite-phase formation temperature range. This article begins with the description on the general correlation between steel mechanical properties and cooling rate during IQ. It presents a review of batch intensive quenching (IQ-2) methods and single-part intensive quenching (IQ-3) methods as well as practical applications of these methods. The article provides useful information on the effect of heat flow on cooling in these methods, and discusses the improvements achieved in part microstructure, mechanical properties, and stress conditions of steel, after intensive quenching. It also describes the reasons for part distortion in IQ, and reviews the types of quench systems used in IQ-2 and IQ-3 processes.

The fluidized bed provides a means for exchanging heat between a metal part, the solid particles, and the fluidizing gas and which is viable for quenching. This article briefly considers the design aspects of the gas distributor, plenum, container, immersed cooling tubes and surface air spray cooling system in the quenching fluidized bed. It describes the fundamental factors affecting quenching power of the fluidized beds, namely, particle size, particle material, fluidizing gas composition, fluidizing gas flow rate, bed temperature and pressure, and the arrangement of quenched parts with respect to one another and to the bed. The article discusses the advantages, disadvantages, various applications and processes, including conventional batch quenching, two-step batch quenching, and continuous quenching of fluidized bed quenching, in detail.

This article is a comprehensive collection of tables containing formulas for metals processing, namely, casting and solidification, flat (sheet) rolling, conical-die extrusion, wire drawing, bending, and deep drawing. Formulas for compression, tension, and torsion testing of isotropic materials are included. The article also lists the formulas for effective stress, strain, and strain rate (isotropic material) in arbitrary and principal coordinates; dimensionless groups in fluid mechanics; and anisotropic sheet materials at various loading conditions.

This article describes the mechanisms and characteristics of heat transfer in the quenching of steel. This article describes the characterization of boiling heat transfer, including pool boiling, forced convective boiling, and rewetting, which plays a key role in defining the heat-extraction characteristics of a liquid quenchant. It provides information on heat generated microstructural field evolution and information on the analysis and characterization of heat transfer boundary conditions.

Intensive quenching (IQ) is an alternative method of hardening steel parts. Two types of IQ methods are used in heat treating practice: IQ-2 and IQ-3. IQ-2 is implemented in IQ water tanks, which are usually used for batch quenching of steel parts. IQ-3 is conducted in single-part processing using high-velocity water flow IQ units. This article presents a detailed description of IQ technology, related equipment, and IQ applications. A review of intensive quench system design and processing is provided, including numerical design criteria, steel selection, quenchants, properties (especially optimal residual stress profiles). Several specific applications of intensive quenching are also provided.

Sintering atmosphere protects metal parts from the effects of contact with air and provides sufficient conduction and convection for uniform heat transfer to ensure even heating or cooling within various furnace sections, such as preparation, sintering, initial cooling, and final cooling sections. This article provides information on the different zones of these furnace sections. It describes the types of atmospheres used in sintering, namely, endothermic gas, exothermic gas, dissociated ammonia, hydrogen, and vacuum. The article concludes with a discussion on the furnace zoning concept and the problems that arise when these atmospheres are not controlled.

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) provides an efficient, alternate, virtual approach for simulating and analyzing quenching processes with an impact on component design, manufacturing process, and quality. This article provides domain insights for quenching researchers and CFD practitioners for the modeling of the industrial quenching process and for supporting the diverse multifunctional needs in an industry, ranging from primary metallurgical companies (steel, aluminum, and other alloys), original equipment manufacturers, engineering companies, captive and commercial heat treating facilities, quench system manufacturers, and quench fluid suppliers. It describes the governing differential equations for the fluid flow and heat-transfer phenomena during quenching. The article also discusses different modeling categories to determine a CFD methodology for quenching.

This article provides information on the various stages of quenching, sources of distortion, and factors that affect the creation of thermal gradients. It reviews the various determinations of heat-transfer coefficients by the thermal conductivity and diffusivity method, analytical and empirical methods, application of cooling curves, computational fluid dynamics, and the inverse conduction calculation and measurement of parts. Suitable examples are also provided.

Spray quenching refers to a wide variety of quenching processes that involve heat removal facilitated by the impingement of a quenchant medium on a hot metal surface. This article provides information on the basic concepts of spray quenching, and discusses the most commonly used techniques in quench tank agitation to establish uniformity of the quenched part. Common techniques include quenchant stirring, quenchant circulation, and submerged jet/spray mixing. The article also describes the effect of quenching agitation and reviews heat-transfer characteristics of immersion quenching and spray quenching with water.

Quenching severity is agitation-dependent and therefore, magnitude and turbulence of fluid flow around a part in the quench zone are critically important relative to the uniformity of heat transfer throughout the quenching process. This article provides an overview of the measurement principles for different types of flow devices used in production quench tanks, namely, vane sensors, fluid-quench sensors, caterpillar quench-evaluation sensors, and thermal probes. Various methods of flow measurement in commercial quench tanks may be acceptable for adequate control to ensure a high-quality production process.