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Book Chapter
Thin Section Preparation and Transmitted Light Microscopy for Fiber-Reinforced Composites
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 9
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2004
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v09.a0009076
EISBN: 978-1-62708-177-1
... Abstract This article describes the various aspects relating to the selection and preparation of ultrathin-section specimens of fiber-reinforced polymeric composites for examination by transmitted light microscopy. It provides information on the contrast-enhancement methods used by transmitted...
Abstract
This article describes the various aspects relating to the selection and preparation of ultrathin-section specimens of fiber-reinforced polymeric composites for examination by transmitted light microscopy. It provides information on the contrast-enhancement methods used by transmitted-light microscopy and optimization of microscope conditions. Examples of composite ultrathin sections analyzed using transmitted-light microscopy contrast methods are also presented.
Book Chapter
Contrast Enhancement and Etching
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 9
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2004
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v09.a0003749
EISBN: 978-1-62708-177-1
... Abstract Metallographic contrasting methods include various electrochemical, optical, and physical etching techniques, which in turn are enhanced by the formation of a thin transparent film on the specimen surface. This article primarily discusses etching in conjunction with light microscopy...
Abstract
Metallographic contrasting methods include various electrochemical, optical, and physical etching techniques, which in turn are enhanced by the formation of a thin transparent film on the specimen surface. This article primarily discusses etching in conjunction with light microscopy and describes several methods for film formation, namely, heat tinting, color etching, anodizing, potentiostatic etching, vapor deposition, and film deposition by sputtering. It provides information on the general procedures and precautions for etchants and reagents used in metallographic microetching, macroetching, electropolishing, chemical polishing, and other similar operations.
Image
The watershed method. (a) Original image. (b) Binary image with touching ob...
Available to PurchasePublished: 01 December 2004
Fig. 45 The watershed method. (a) Original image. (b) Binary image with touching objects. (c) The EDM of the binary image (with contrast enhancement). (d) The watersheds derived from (c). (e) The boundaries superimposed on the original image. Original image, courtesy of Vito Smolej, Carl Zeiss
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Book Chapter
Viewing Composite Specimens Using Reflected Light Microscopy
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 9
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2004
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v09.a0009075
EISBN: 978-1-62708-177-1
... phases or etchants for dissimilar material phases are often used to enhance the contrast. While these methods can be effectively used for many composite materials and matrices, significant time may be required to determine a functional dye or etchant material, and it is possible that a useful dye...
Abstract
The analysis of composite materials using optical microscopy is a process that can be made easy and efficient with only a few contrast methods and preparation techniques. This article is intended to provide information that will help an investigator select the appropriate microscopy technique for the specific analysis objectives with a given composite material. The article opens with a discussion of macrophotography and microscope alignment, and then goes on to describe various illumination techniques that are useful for specific analysis requirements. These techniques include bright-field illumination, dark-field illumination, polarized-light microscopy, interference and contrast microscopy, and fluorescence microscopy. The article also provides a discussion of sample preparation materials such as dyes, etchants, and stains for the analysis of composite materials using optical microscopy.
Book: Composites
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 21
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2001
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v21.a0003464
EISBN: 978-1-62708-195-5
... methods use several contrast-enhancement methods that are not commonly used in metallurgical reflective microscopy. These methods include bright field; polarized light; phase contrast; differential interference contrast (DIC), also known as Nomarski; modulation contrast, also known as Hoffman contrast...
Abstract
Microscopy is a valuable tool in materials investigations related to problem solving, failure analysis, advanced materials development, and quality control. This article describes the sample preparation techniques of composite materials. These techniques include mounting, rough grinding, and polishing. The preparation techniques of ultrathin sections are also summarized. The article explains the illumination methods used by reflected light microscopy to view a specimen. These consist of epi-bright-field illumination, epi-dark-field illumination, epi-polarized light, and epi-fluorescence. The article also provides information on transmitted light microscopy.
Book Chapter
Toughening Methods for Thermoset-Matrix Composites
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 9
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2004
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v09.a0009080
EISBN: 978-1-62708-177-1
...-light analysis. Hoffman modulation contrast, 10× objective The two main methods for manufacturing prepregs that have preformed-particle-rich surfaces are single- and double-pass impregnation, although other methods have also been used ( Ref 21 ). One method that has received much attention...
Abstract
This article describes the dispersed-phase toughening of thermoset matrices by the development of multiphase-structure thermosetting matrices using rubber and/or thermoplastic materials. It discusses two main methods for manufacturing prepregs, namely, single-pass impregnation and double-pass impregnation. The article illustrates reflected-light optical microscopy techniques to evaluate the morphology of thermoplastic materials for determining the material quality and correlating key microstructural features with material performance.
Book Chapter
Metallography and Microstructures of Zirconium, Hafnium, and Their Alloys
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 9
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2004
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v09.a0003782
EISBN: 978-1-62708-177-1
... Note: Use fairly large swabs with all etching procedures. (a) Dispose after using because the etchant may become unstable with time and a chemical reaction may occur. Anodization Anodization is a metallographic-enhancement technique used for contrasting and identifying specific...
Abstract
Zirconium, hafnium, and their alloys are reactive metals used in a variety of nuclear and chemical processing applications. This article describes various specimen preparation procedures for these materials, including sectioning, mounting, grinding, polishing, and etching. It reviews some examples of the microstructure and examination for zircaloy alloys, hafnium, zirconium, and bimetallic forms.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 9
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2004
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v09.a0003754
EISBN: 978-1-62708-177-1
... metallographs with assorted illumination modes, light sources, microhardness attachments, hot stages, and so on. An example of an inverted metallograph is shown in Fig. 4 . Fig. 4 Inverted metallograph. Features include selection of incident light, various contrasting methods, camera, and microhardness...
Abstract
This article provides information on the basic components of a light microscope, including the illumination system, collector lens, and optical and mechanical components. It describes optical performance in terms of image aberrations, resolution, and depth of field. The article discusses the examination of specimen surfaces using polarized light, phase contrast, oblique illumination, dark-field illumination, bright-field illumination, interference-contrast illumination, and phase contrast illumination. Special techniques and devices that may be used with the optical microscope, to obtain additional information, are also described. The article concludes with information on photomicroscopy and macrophotography.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1986
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0001760
EISBN: 978-1-62708-178-8
... from C is the dynamic image; the enhanced intensity from C′ associated with the new wave path produces the intermediate image. Fig. 5 Origin of direct (1), dynamical (2), and intermediate (3) image contrast for a dislocation. Source: Ref 8 Pendellösung Fringes Energy transfer between...
Abstract
X-ray topography is a technique that comprises topography and x-ray diffraction. This article provides a description of the kinematical theory and the dynamical theory of diffraction. It provides useful information on the configurations of reflection and transmission topography. The article explains various topographic methods, namely, divergent beam method, polycrystal rocking curve analysis, line broadening analysis, microbeam method, and polycrystal scattering topography, as well as their instrumentation. It also describes the applications of x-ray topography.
Book Chapter
Microstructural Analysis of Finished Surfaces
Available to PurchaseBook: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001237
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... detection (also called thresholding ) assigns specific contrast values to the image (0 to 255 gray levels). The most accurate and precise method for properly thresholding an image is to use a gray-level histogram. Figure 1 shows a porous steatite ceramic sample and the corresponding gray-level histogram...
Abstract
Quantitative image analysis has expanded the capabilities of surface analysis significantly with the use of computer technology. This article provides an overview of the quantitative image analysis and optical microscopy. It describes the various steps involved in surface preparation of samples prone to abrasion damage and artifacts for quantitative image analysis.
Book Chapter
Digital Imaging
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 9
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2004
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v09.a0003757
EISBN: 978-1-62708-177-1
... and output of the image to a printer. The methods used to enhance the digital image and to extract quantitative information are also described. Different types of image segmentation, namely, adaptive segmentation and contour-based segmentation, are reviewed. The article also presents case studies...
Abstract
This article reviews the main theoretical and practical aspects of sequence normally followed in digital image-acquisition, processing, analysis, and output for material characterization. It discusses the main methods of digital imaging, image processing, and analysis, as applied to microscopy of materials. The article describes the basic concepts of sampling and resolution and quantization of light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. It discusses the acquisition of a digital image that accurately represents the sample under observation and output of the image to a printer. The methods used to enhance the digital image and to extract quantitative information are also described. Different types of image segmentation, namely, adaptive segmentation and contour-based segmentation, are reviewed. The article also presents case studies on the application of image processing and analysis to materials characterization.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 9
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2004
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v09.a0003755
EISBN: 978-1-62708-177-1
... of a primary silicon crystal and the complex shapes of the eutectic silicon lamellae are clearly revealed. 1000×. (b) Topographic contrast BE image of a freshly polished cross section. The aluminum matrix appears brighter despite the lower atomic number due to the enhanced yield at the polishing scratches...
Abstract
This article outlines the beam/sample interactions and the basic instrumental design of a scanning electron microscopy (SEM), which include the electron gun, probeforming column (consisting of magnetic electron lenses, apertures, and scanning coils), electron detectors, and vacuum system. It discusses the contrasts mechanisms used for imaging and analyzing materials in the SEM. These include the topographic contrast, compositional contrast, and electron channeling pattern and orientation contrast. Special instrumentation and accessory equipment used at elevated pressures and during the X-ray microanalysis are reviewed. The article also provides information on the sample preparation procedure and the materials applications of the SEM.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 23
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2012
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v23.a0005685
EISBN: 978-1-62708-198-6
... and focused on the eyepieces or recording device to form the observed image. Surfaces that are reflective and perpendicular to the light rays appear bright. Alternatively, nonreflective or oblique features reflect less light and appear darker. Polarized Light This method produces enhanced contrast...
Abstract
This article focuses on the modes of operation, physical basis, sample requirements, properties characterized, advantages, and limitations of the characterization methods used to evaluate the physical morphology and chemical properties of component surfaces for medical devices. These methods include light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, Auger electron spectroscopy, secondary ion mass spectrometry, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and Raman spectroscopy.
Book Chapter
Effect of Surface Conditions and Processing on Fatigue Performance
Available to PurchaseBook: Fatigue and Fracture
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 19
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1996
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v19.a0002371
EISBN: 978-1-62708-193-1
... to improve fatigue resistance in terms of their respective effects on fatigue performance. The article details the experimental data sets representing specific materials, typical test geometries, and a range of different processing methods used to enhance resistance as compared to results for laboratory...
Abstract
This article presents an approach to characterize the effects of surface treatments to enhance fatigue properties, with particular concern for wear, corrosion, and thermal effects. It discusses the considerations in selecting fabrication or subsequent surface processing procedures to improve fatigue resistance in terms of their respective effects on fatigue performance. The article details the experimental data sets representing specific materials, typical test geometries, and a range of different processing methods used to enhance resistance as compared to results for laboratory tests.
Book Chapter
Radiography
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003238
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... presents excellent resolution and contrast. (c) Includes only visible cracks. Minute surface cracks normally are undetectable by radiographic inspection methods. (d) Radiation beam must be parallel to the cracks, laps, or flakes. (e) When calibrated using special thickness gages...
Abstract
Radiography is a nondestructive-inspection method that is based on the differential absorption of penetrating radiation by the part or test piece (object) being inspected. This article discusses the fundamentals and general applications of radiography, and describes the sources of radiation in radiographic inspection, including X-rays and gamma rays. It deals with the characteristics that differentiate neutron radiography from X-ray or gamma-ray radiography. The geometric principles of shadow formation, image conversion, variation of attenuation with test-piece thickness, and many other factors that govern the exposure and processing of a neutron radiograph are similar to those for radiography using X-rays or gamma rays.
Book Chapter
Infrared Imaging for Corrosion, Disbondments, and Cracks
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2003
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13a.a0003657
EISBN: 978-1-62708-182-5
... to the thermographic signal. The remainder of the incident energy contributes to the background temperature, thereby reducing the maximum possible thermal contrast, since the thermal contrast is obtained by subtracting the background temperature from the temperature of the hot spot. In the thermosonic method, energy...
Abstract
This article begins with an overview of the various aspects of infrared pulse thermography used to detect disbondments, delaminations, and generalized corrosion. It describes the distinctive phases of the pulse thermographic process and the key components that are required to perform active thermography. The components include an excitation source, a thermographic camera, and a computer with software that controls the instrumentation, acquires data, and displays the results. The article discusses the process and experimental setup of sonic thermography used for crack detection.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006456
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
.... Since the end of the 1970s, dedicated efforts have been applied to the use of CT in industry. The petroleum industry was one of the early major users of medical-type scanners to analyze oil drilling core samples and to assist in analyzing secondary oil recovery methods in rock samples. Medical CT...
Abstract
Computed tomography (CT) is an imaging technique that generates a three-dimensional (3-D) volumetric image of a test piece. This article illustrates the basic principles of CT and provides information on the types, applications, and capabilities of CT systems. A comparison of performance characteristics for film radiography, real-time radiography, and X-ray computed tomography is presented in a table. A functional block diagram of a typical computed tomography system is provided. The article discusses CT scanning geometry that is used to acquire the necessary transmission data. It also provides information on digital radiography, image processing and analysis, dual-energy imaging, and partial angle imaging, of a CT system.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 6
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1993
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v06.a0001473
EISBN: 978-1-62708-173-3
... a very flat field of view in which important features can be lost unless the surface is illuminated carefully. Fig. 1 Weld gage Penetrant Testing Penetrants provide a method of enhancing the visibility of flaws. A strongly colored, or fluorescent, liquid is applied liberally to the test...
Abstract
This article describes the applications, methods, and limitations of five principal nondestructive test methods, namely, penetrant testing, magnetic-particle testing, eddy current testing, radiographic testing, and ultrasonic testing. The article also provides guidance for the method selection for respective applications.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006644
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
..., rays will bend in opposite directions on either side of the core, potentially producing opposite contrast. Net contrast is observed, because any deviation of the wavefields from the direction of propagation corresponding to the perfect crystal region forces them to experience enhanced absorption...
Abstract
X-ray topography is the general term for a family of x-ray diffraction imaging techniques capable of providing information on the nature and distribution of imperfections. This article provides a detailed account of x-ray topography techniques, providing information on the historical background and development trends in x-ray diffraction topography. The discussion covers the general principles, components of systems, and applications of x-ray topography techniques, namely conventional X-ray topographic techniques and synchrotron x-ray topographic techniques.
Book Chapter
Visual Inspection
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003230
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... discontinuities. Visual inspection is the most widely used method for detecting and examining surface cracks. Visual inspection methods range from examination with the naked eye to the use of interference microscopes to measure the depth of scratches in the finish of finely polished and lapped surfaces...
Abstract
Visual inspection is a nondestructive testing technique that provides a means to detect and examine a variety of surface flaws, such as corrosion, contamination, surface finish, and surface discontinuities. This article discusses the equipment used to aid visual inspection, including borescopes (rigid and flexible), optical sensors, and magnifying systems. The article discusses the special features of borescopes, the factors that influence the choice of a flexible or rigid borescope for use in a specific application, and some of the image sensors used in visual inspection.
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