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color metallography
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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006684
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... preparation are not covered in this article as they are covered in great depth for all commercially used alloy systems, together with the use of the light microscope, interpretation of microstructure, and color metallography ( Ref 1 ā 18 ). This article concentrates on how to reveal microstructure properly to...
Abstract
The reflected light microscope is the most commonly used tool to study the microstructure of metals, composites, ceramics, minerals, and polymers. For the study of the microstructure of metals and alloys, light microscopy is employed in the reflected-light mode using either bright-field illumination, dark-field illumination, polarized light illumination, or differential interference contract, generally by the Nomarski technique. This article concentrates on how to reveal microstructure properly to enable the proper identification of the phases and constituents and, if needed, measuring the amount, size, and spacing of constituents, using the light optical microscope. The discussion covers the examination of microstructures using different illumination methods and includes a comparison between light optical images and scanning electron microscopy images of microstructure.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006760
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... coloration of adjacent beach marks is typically due to changes in loading or environmental factors. In the SEM at sufficiently high magnification, fatigue striations can be detected in many materials but not all ( Fig. 8 ). In hardened steel or high-strength steelsāvery common materialsāstriations may often...
Abstract
Visual examination, using the unaided eye or a low-power optical magnifier, is typically one of the first steps in a failure investigation. This article presents the guidelines for selecting samples for scanning electron microscope examination and optical metallography and for cleaning fracture surfaces. It discusses damage characterization of metals, covering various factors that influence the damage, namely stress, aggressive environment, temperature, and discontinuities.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006682
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... but not as competent at recognizing features of interest. To enhance feature detection, it is necessary to use etchants that are selective as to which constituent or phase they color or darken and which they do not. In general, the commonly used etchants for qualitative evaluation of the...
Abstract
This article reviews many commonly used stereological counting measurements and the relationships based on these parameters. The discussion covers the processes involved in sampling and specimen preparation. Quantitative microstructural measurements are described including volume fraction, number per unit area, intersections and intercepts per unit length, grain size, and inclusion content.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006678
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
..., fluorine, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and boron, can be measured with useful accuracy as major constituents in fluorides, oxides, nitrides, carbides, and borides. Quantitative compositional mapping can be performed on x-ray spectrum image databases, resulting in elemental images in which the gray or color...
Abstract
This article briefly discusses popular techniques for metals characterization. It begins with a description of the most common techniques for determining chemical composition of metals, namely X-ray fluorescence, optical emission spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, high-temperature combustion, and inert gas fusion. This is followed by a section on techniques for determining the atomic structure of crystals, namely X-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction, and electron diffraction. Types of electron microscopies most commonly used for microstructural analysis of metals, such as scanning electron microscopy, electron probe microanalysis, and transmission electron microscopy, are then reviewed. The article contains tables listing analytical methods used for characterization of metals and alloys and surface analysis techniques. It ends by discussing the objective of metallography.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003004
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
... Abstract This article is a comprehensive collection of engineering property data in tabulated form for ceramics and glasses. Data are provided for physical and mechanical properties of ceramic materials and color of ceramics fired under oxidizing and reducing conditions. The article also lists...
Abstract
This article is a comprehensive collection of engineering property data in tabulated form for ceramics and glasses. Data are provided for physical and mechanical properties of ceramic materials and color of ceramics fired under oxidizing and reducing conditions. The article also lists the materials characterization techniques for ceramics and glasses.
Book: Corrosion: Materials
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13b.a0003969
EISBN: 978-1-62708-183-2
..., conditions, and specific circumstances that together can reduce the anticipated service life of a component or plant. The color images in this article are categorized according to the type of corrosion following the general order that is adopted in Volume 13A of ASM Handbook. The first table of the article...
Abstract
This article is a pictorial guide to forms of corrosion that draws attention to common pitfalls or situations that have caused premature corrosion, sometimes with expensive consequences. The examples used are not exhaustive; they highlight the necessity to fully examine materials, conditions, and specific circumstances that together can reduce the anticipated service life of a component or plant. The color images in this article are categorized according to the type of corrosion following the general order that is adopted in Volume 13A of ASM Handbook. The first table of the article provides a categorization of the forms of corrosion. It also provides a reference to articles or sections of articles in Volume 13A that detail the particular corrosion form or mechanism. The second table is a guide listing the figures in this article by material and by the corrosion form or mechanism illustrated.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001312
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... metallographically prepared surfaces for light microscope observation. See P.E. Danielson's articles on color metallography and the metallography of zirconium, hafnium, and titanium in Volume 9 of the ASM Handbook. Caution should be exercised during the anodizing process, especially when the high voltage is...
Abstract
Zirconium and hafnium surfaces require cleaning and finishing prior to many processes including joining, heat treating, plating, forming, and final surface finishing. This article provides information on surface treatment processes, surface soil removal, blast cleaning, chemical descaling, pickling or etching, anodizing, autoclaving, polishing, buffing, vapor phase nitriding, and electroplating. It also provides several application examples.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006763
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... microstructure away from the fracture is shown in Fig. 33 . Optical metallography has historically used monochromatic lighting and black-and-white photography. However, color photography is advantageous in metallography for showing heating effects, corrosion product, and microstructural features with color...
Abstract
Failure analysis is an investigative process that uses visual observations of features present on a failed component fracture surface combined with component and environmental conditions to determine the root cause of a failure. The primary means of recording the conditions and features observed during a failure analysis investigation is photography. Failure analysis photographic imaging is a combination of both science and art; experience and proper imaging techniques are required to produce an accurate and meaningful fracture surface photograph. This article reviews photographic principles and techniques as applied to failure analysis, both in the field and in the laboratory. The discussion covers the processes involved in field and laboratory photographic documentations, provides a description of professional digital cameras, and gives information on photographic lighting and microscopic photography. Special techniques can be employed to deal with highly reflective conditions and are also described in this article.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003244
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... distribution of sulfur is shown by the presence of darkly colored areas of silver sulfide on the print. The print is a mirror image of the sulfur distribution. Voids, holes, or cracks may be represented by dark spots or lines due to hydrogen sulfide gas becoming trapped in these openings under the paper. Other...
Abstract
This article describes the methods and equipments involved in the preparation of specimens for examination by light optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, electron microprobe analysis for microindentation hardness testing, and for quantification of microstructural parameters, either manually or by the use of image analyzers. Preparation of metallographic specimens generally requires five major operations: sectioning, mounting, grinding, chemical polishing, and etching. The article provides information on the principles of technique selection in mechanical polishing, and describes the procedures, advantages, and disadvantages of electrolytic and chemical polishing. It also provides a detailed account of procedures, precautions, and composition for preparation and handling of etchants.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003227
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... the aid of a hand magnifier or other suitable viewing aid. At this stage, features such as the extent of damage, general appearance of the damage zone, and the color, texture, and quantity of surface residues are of primary interest. If substantial amounts of foreign matter are visible, cleaning is...
Abstract
This article describes various evaluation techniques of fractography such as visual inspection, macroscopic and microscopic examinations that are used to resolve different aspects of failure. It gives a brief description and pictorial representation of various defects leading to fracture of metals, including laps, seams, cold shuts, cracks, inclusions, porosity, fatigue, and stress corrosion cracking.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003214
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... geometrically precise components or surfaces of controlled texture or surface finish. ELECTROPOLISHING is a nonabrasive electrochemical process for removing metal. Etching, deburring, smoothing, coloring, and machining are typical electropolishing processes. The removal of metal is done anodically...
Abstract
Finishing refers to a wide variety of processes that generally involve material removal in one form or another to generate surfaces with specific geometries, tolerances, and functional or decorative characteristics. This article discusses four major finishing methods, namely, abrasive machining, electropolishing, mass finishing, and shot peening. In each case, it describes subtypes, process variations, and the associated equipment.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003245
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... ferrite, martensite, and massive carbide by coloration; differentiates bainite and fine pearlite; reveals carbide particles in grain boundaries of low-carbon steel. Addition of about 0.5 to 1 mL zephiran chloride wetting agent increases speed of attack. 3 Vilella's reagent: 5 mL HCl, 1 g picric acid...
Abstract
Proper sectioning of the surface to be examined is a very important step in preparing steel specimens. The first step in preventing damage to the metallurgical structure is to minimize the amount of sectioning that is done. This article discusses the various metallographic techniques, namely mounting, grinding, polishing, and etching involved in the microstructural analysis of carbon and alloy steels, case hardening steels, cast iron, ferrous powder metallurgy alloys, wrought and cast stainless steels, tool materials, steel castings, iron-chromium-nickel heat-resistant casting alloys and different product forms of steels.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 10
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0006671
EISBN: 978-1-62708-213-6
... techniques. For instance, optical microscopy of thin sections gives optical indexes and extinction angles. Crystal shape and color can be used to identify phases in either transmission or reflection modes, providing additional knowledge of the system. An example of a common application is the identification...
Abstract
The characterization, testing, and nondestructive evaluation of ceramics and glasses are vital to manufacturing control, property improvement, failure prevention, and quality assurance. This article provides a broad overview of characterization methods and their relationship to property control, both in the production and use of ceramics and glasses. Important aspects covered include the means for characterizing ceramics and glasses, the corresponding rationale behind them, and relationship of chemistry, phases, and microconstituents to engineering properties. The article also describes the effects that the structure of raw ceramic materials and green products and processing parameters have on the ultimate structure and properties of the processed piece. The effects that trace chemistry and processing parameters have on glass properties are discussed. The article describes mechanical tests and failure analysis techniques used for ceramics.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006466
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
... output of the C-mode scanning acoustic microscope is displayed in full gray scale, in which the gray level is proportional to the amplitude of the interface signal. The gray scale can be converted into false color, and, as shown in Fig. 5 , the images also can be color coded with echo polarity...
Abstract
This article discusses the fundamentals and operating principles of the following acoustic microscopy methods: scanning laser acoustic microscopy, C-mode scanning acoustic microscopy, and scanning acoustic microscopy. It describes the applications of acoustic microscopy for detecting defects in metals, ceramics, glasses, polymers, and composites with examples.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006786
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... discolored and exhibit a characteristic color or sheen. In the case of LMIE, the fracture is, of course, covered by a visible layer of the embrittler metal. For example, at room temperature, mercury or its alloys are liquid, and other metals are present as a resolidified coating. Mercury-induced failures...
Abstract
Metal-induced embrittlement is a phenomenon in which the ductility or the fracture stress of a solid metal is reduced by surface contact with another metal in either the liquid or solid form. This article summarizes some of the characteristics of liquid-metal- and solid-metal-induced embrittlement. This phenomenon shares many of these characteristics with other modes of environmentally induced cracking, such as hydrogen embrittlement and stress-corrosion cracking. The discussion covers the occurrence, failure analysis, and service failures of the embrittlement. The article also briefly reviews some commercial alloy systems in which liquid-metal-induced embrittlement or solid-metal-induced embrittlement has been documented and describes some examples of cracking due to these phenomena, either in manufacturing or in service.
Book Chapter
Book: Corrosion: Materials
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13b.a0003838
EISBN: 978-1-62708-183-2
... form a hard, corrosion-resistant gold-colored watch case (bezel). Clearly, the potential exists to use these thin (2 to 10 μm, or 0.08 to 0.4 mil) coatings on wear- and corrosion-resistant parts. The limitation is that the coating must be very thin to avoid spalling or chipping. Coating is most...
Abstract
Cemented carbides are extremely important in corrosion conditions in which high hardness, wear resistance, or abrasion resistance is required. This article describes the effect of binder composition and carbide addition on corrosion behavior of cemented carbides. It lists the examples of their uses in corrosion applications. The article provides information on the selection of cemented carbides for corrosion applications and tabulates the corrosion resistance of cemented carbides in various media. It expounds the oxidation resistance of cemented carbides and presents some tips to improve the properties of tungsten carbide cutting tools. The article also details the coating materials and coating processes of cemented carbides.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006460
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
... ( Ref 16 ) and orthotropic media ( Ref 17 ). Light penetration has been experimentally studied in detail with colored glasses, giving a wide range of penetration depths ( Ref 15 , 18 ). Light penetration is very important in practice because it gives a piston source at the surface of the material...
Abstract
Laser-ultrasonics is a particular implementation of ultrasonic nondestructive inspection in which ultrasound is generated and detected by lasers. This article discusses the various mechanisms that ensure ultrasound generation and explains the possibility to get the equivalent of phase-array by numerical processing of an array of previously acquired laser-ultrasonic signals. The article describes the ultrasound generation by thermoelastic mechanism and ablation or vaporization. It illustrates the principle of optical detection of ultrasound with confocal Fabry-Perot interferometer and photorefractive two-wave mixing interferometer. The article concludes with information on the industrial applications of laser-ultrasonics, including thickness measurement, flaw detection, and material characterization.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006764
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... Visual observation of the test object surface to evaluate dimensions, color, and presence of surface discontinuities Postmanufacturing inspections, in-service inspections looking for dimensional anomalies, color variation, cracks, pits, etc. Only sensitive to surface flaws Low cost, intuitive. May be...
Abstract
Nondestructive testing (NDT), also known as nondestructive evaluation (NDE), includes various techniques to characterize materials without damage. This article focuses on the typical NDE techniques that may be considered when conducting a failure investigation. The article begins with discussion about the concept of the probability of detection (POD), on which the statistical reliability of crack detection is based. The coverage includes the various methods of surface inspection, including visual-examination tools, scanning technology in dimensional metrology, and the common methods of detecting surface discontinuities by magnetic-particle inspection, liquid penetrant inspection, and eddy-current testing. The major NDE methods for internal (volumetric) inspection in failure analysis also are described.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 14A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v14a.a0004004
EISBN: 978-1-62708-185-6
... Technologies, Thomas Christoffel of Hatebur Equipment, Frauke Hogue of Hogue Metallography, Cory Padfield of Hyundai America, Richard Perlick of Techalloy Company, and Marc van Thiel of Nedschroef-Herentals. Also, the authors are extremely grateful for the considerable assistance with graphics, the thorough...
Abstract
Cold heading is typically a high-speed process where a blank is progressively moved through a multi-station machine. This article discusses various cold heading process parameters, such as upset length ratio, upset diameter ratio, upset strain, and process sequence design. It describes the various components of a cold-heading machine and the tools used in the cold heading process. These include headers, transfer headers, bolt makers, nut formers, and parts formers. The article explains the operations required for preparing stock for cold heading, including heat treating, drawing to size, machining, descaling, cutting to length, and lubricating. It lists the advantages of the cold heading over machining. Materials selection criteria for dies and punches in cold heading are also described. The article provides examples that demonstrate tolerance capabilities and show dimensional variations obtained in production runs of specific cold-headed products. It concludes with a discussion on the applications of warm heading.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003247
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... cladding alloy Other clad alloys 1 (immerse), 2, 3A, 5, or 11 Any differences in structure that demarcate one layer from another Examination for solid-solution coring or segregation, and diffusion effects 3 xxx, 5 xxx series; Al-Mg casting alloys 10 Interference colors due to differences...
Abstract
This article describes the metallographic technique for nonferrous metals and special-purpose alloys. These include aluminum alloys, copper and copper alloys, lead and lead alloys, magnesium alloys, nickel and nickel alloys, magnetic alloys, tin and tin alloys, titanium and titanium alloys, refractory metals and alloys, zinc and zinc alloys, and wrought heat-resisting alloys. The preparation of specimens for metallographic technique includes operations such as sectioning, mounting, grinding, polishing, and etching of nonferrous metals and alloys. The article contains tables that list the etchants for macroscopic examination and microscopic examination of nonferrous metals and special-purpose alloys.