Search Results for bulk structural analysis

X-ray diffraction (XRD) is the most extensively used method for identifying and characterizing various aspects of metals related to the arrangements and spacings of their atoms for bulk structural analysis. XRD techniques are also applicable to ceramics, geologic materials, and most inorganic chemical compounds. This article describes the operating principles and types of XRD analyses, along with information about the threshold sensitivity and precision, limitations, sample requirements, and capabilities of related techniques. The necessary instrumentation for XRD analyses include the Debye-Scherrer camera and the X-ray diffractometer. The article also describes the uses of XRD analyses, such as the identification of phases or compounds in metals and ceramics; detection of order and disorder transformation; determination of lattice parameters and changes in lattice parameters due to alloying and temperature effects; measurement of residual stresses; characterization of crystallite size and perfection; characterization of preferred orientations; and determination of single crystal orientations.

This article provides a general introduction of materials characterization and describes the principles and applications of a limited number of techniques that are most commonly used to characterize the composition and structure of metals used in engineering systems. It briefly describes the classification of materials characterization methods including, bulk elemental characterization, bulk structural characterization, microstructural characterization, and surface characterization. Further, the article reviews the selection of materials characterization methods most commonly used with metals.

Microstructural analysis of specialized types of magnetic materials is centered on the examination of optical, electron, and scanning probe metallographic techniques unique to magnetic materials. This article provides a comprehensive overview of magnetic materials, their characteristics and sample preparation procedures. It reviews the methods pertaining to the microstructural examination of bulk magnetic materials, including microscopy techniques specified to magnetic materials characterization, with specific examples. The techniques used in the study of magnetic domain structures (microstructure) include the magneto-optical Kerr method, the Faraday method, the Bitter technique, scanning electron microscopy (magnetic contrast Types I and II), scanning electron microscopy with polarization analysis, Lorentz transmission electron microscopy, and magnetic force microscopy. The article also illustrates the microstructure of different types of soft magnetic material and permanent magnets.

Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS) is a major materials characterization technique that can provide information in a short analysis time. It is used for quantitative compositional analysis of thin films, layered structures, or bulk materials and to measure surface impurities of heavy elements on substrates of lighter elements. This article focuses on RBS and its principles, such as collision kinematics, scattering cross section, and energy loss. It describes the channeling effect and the operation of the RBS equipment. The article also provides information on the applications of RBS.

This article briefly discusses popular techniques for metals characterization. It begins with a description of the most common techniques for determining chemical composition of metals, namely X-ray fluorescence, optical emission spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, high-temperature combustion, and inert gas fusion. This is followed by a section on techniques for determining the atomic structure of crystals, namely X-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction, and electron diffraction. Types of electron microscopies most commonly used for microstructural analysis of metals, such as scanning electron microscopy, electron probe microanalysis, and transmission electron microscopy, are then reviewed. The article contains tables listing analytical methods used for characterization of metals and alloys and surface analysis techniques. It ends by discussing the objective of metallography.

Microstructural analysis is the combined characterization of the morphology, elemental composition, and crystallography of microstructural features through the use of a microscope. This article reviews three types of the most commonly used electron microscopies in metallurgical studies, namely scanning electron microscopy, electron probe microanalysis, and transmission electron microscopy. It briefly describes the operating principles, instrumentation which includes energy dispersive X-ray detectors, spatial resolution, typical use of the techniques, elemental analysis detection threshold and precision, limitations, sample requirements, and the capabilities of related techniques.

This article discusses several purposes and types of materials characterization techniques. Some of the factors to be considered when selecting appropriate characterization methods are described. The article also presents the scope and organization of this volume.

Chemical analysis is a critical part of any failure investigation. With the right planning and proper analytical equipment, a myriad of information can be obtained from a sample. This article presents a high-level introduction to techniques often used for chemical analysis during failure analysis. It describes the general considerations for bulk and microscale chemical analysis in failure analysis, the most effective techniques to use for organic or inorganic materials, and examples of using these techniques. The article discusses the processes involved in the chemical analysis of nonmetallics. Advances in chemical analysis methods for failure analysis are also covered.

This article uses metal and alloy powders as examples to briefly discuss how to perform the characterization of powders. It begins by reviewing some of the techniques involved in the sampling of powders to ensure accurate characterization. This is followed by a discussion on the important properties to characterize powders, namely the particle size, surface area, density, porosity, particle hardness, compressibility, green strength, and flowability. For characterization of powders, both individual particles and bulk powders are used to evaluate their physical and chemical properties. The article also discusses the important characteristics and compositions of powder as well as impurities that directly affect powder properties. It ends with a description of the ignition and dust-explosion characteristics of organic and metal powders.

This article introduces various techniques commonly used in the characterization of semiconductors, namely single-crystal, polycrystalline, amorphous, oxide, organic, and low-dimensional semiconductors and semiconductor devices. The discussion covers material classification, fabrication methods, sample preparation, bulk/elemental characterization methods, microstructural characterization methods, surface characterization methods, and electronic characterization methods.

The overall chemical composition of metals and alloys is most commonly determined by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and optical emission spectroscopy (OES), and combustion and inert gas fusion analysis. This article provides information on the capabilities, uses, detection threshold and precision methods, and sample requirements. The amount of material that needs to be sampled, operating principles, and limitations of the stated methods are also discussed.

The characterization, testing, and nondestructive evaluation of ceramics and glasses are vital to manufacturing control, property improvement, failure prevention, and quality assurance. This article provides a broad overview of characterization methods and their relationship to property control, both in the production and use of ceramics and glasses. Important aspects covered include the means for characterizing ceramics and glasses, the corresponding rationale behind them, and relationship of chemistry, phases, and microconstituents to engineering properties. The article also describes the effects that the structure of raw ceramic materials and green products and processing parameters have on the ultimate structure and properties of the processed piece. The effects that trace chemistry and processing parameters have on glass properties are discussed. The article describes mechanical tests and failure analysis techniques used for ceramics.

This article primarily considers the problem of sampling bulk materials, including minerals, metals, environmentally important substances, and industrial raw materials and waste products. It provides useful information on sample types, sampling plan, optimizing sampling resources, practical aspects of sampling, and how to ensure the quality of sampling.

Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) is a technique for investigating the crystallography of surfaces and overlayers adsorbed on surfaces. This article describes the principles of diffraction from surfaces, and elucidates the method of sample preparation to achieve diffraction patterns. The article describes the limitations of surface sensitive electron diffraction and discusses the applications of LEED with examples.

Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) is a technique for investigating the crystallography of surfaces and overlayers adsorbed on surfaces. This article provides a brief account of LEED, covering the principles and measurements of diffraction from surfaces. Some of the processes involved in sample preparation are described. In addition, the article discusses the limitations of surface-sensitive electron diffraction and the applications of LEED with examples.

Several methods are developed for the numerical solution of partial differential equations, namely, meshed-solution methods such as the finite-element method (FEM), finite-difference method, and boundary-element method; and numerical algorithms consisting of so-called meshed-solution methods. This article introduces the methods of so-called meshed solutions, with an emphasis on the FEM. It presents some basic differential equations that are used to model the responses of structures, components, processes, or systems with emphasis on continuum mechanics. The article provides an outline on the mathematical principles of solving differential equations. It also reviews linear structural problems to illustrate the concept of the FEMs.

Additive manufacturing (AM) process modalities offer access to rich sets of structures for metallic materials that are otherwise difficult to obtain through a single conventional manufacturing process for bulk-scale materials. This article presents the primary aim of understanding the linkage between the process and structure in AM, which is typically focused on the correlation of machine process settings to defects such as material porosity and cracking. It also presents the development of scan strategies for site-specific microstructure control and discusses factors influencing process-structure relationships in fusion metals AM.

This article discusses the capabilities and limitations of various material characterization methods that assist in the selection of a proper analytical tool for analyzing particulate materials. Commonly used methods are microanalysis, surface analysis, and bulk analysis. The techniques used for performing microanalysis include scanning electron microscopy and electron probe X-ray microanalysis. The article describes surface analysis techniques, including Auger electron spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and ion-scattering spectroscopy. Bulk analysis techniques, such as X-ray powder diffraction, inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy, atomic absorption spectroscopy, and atomic fluorescence spectrometry, are also discussed.