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Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001243
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... attack by the plating solution on parts of the rack that are immersed in the solution, these parts are covered with nonconducting material such as water-resistant tape, special insulating lacquer, or plastisol coatings. Fig. 2 Racks used in hard chromium plating All soils and passive films...
Abstract
Hard chromium plating is produced by electrodeposition from a solution containing chromic acid and a catalytic anion in proper proportion. This article presents the major uses of hard chromium plating, and focuses on the selection factors, plating solutions, solution and process control, equipment, surface preparation, and crack patterns and other characteristics of hard chromium plating. It offers recommendations for the design and use of plating racks, describes the problems encountered in hard chromium plating, and their corrective procedures. The article provides information on the removal of chromium plate from coated metals, recovery and disposal of wastes, and stopoff media for selective plating.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4E
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04e.a0006287
EISBN: 978-1-62708-169-6
... also discusses the mechanisms used for strengthening aluminum alloys, including solid-solution hardening, grain-size strengthening, work or strain hardening, and precipitation hardening. The process of precipitation hardening involves solution heat treatment, quenching, and subsequent aging of the as...
Abstract
This article describes the general categories and metallurgy of heat treatable aluminum alloys. It briefly reviews the key impurities and each of the principal alloying elements in aluminum alloys, namely, copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon, zinc, iron, lithium, titanium, boron, zirconium, chromium, vanadium, scandium, nickel, tin, and bismuth. The article discusses the secondary phases in aluminum alloys, namely, nonmetallic inclusions, porosity, primary particles, constituent particles, dispersoids, precipitates, grain and dislocation structure, and crystallographic texture. It also discusses the mechanisms used for strengthening aluminum alloys, including solid-solution hardening, grain-size strengthening, work or strain hardening, and precipitation hardening. The process of precipitation hardening involves solution heat treatment, quenching, and subsequent aging of the as-quenched supersaturated solid solution. The article briefly discusses these processes of precipitation hardening. It also reviews precipitation in various alloy systems, including 2xxx, 6xxx, 7xxx, aluminum-lithium, and Al-Mg-Li systems.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4E
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04e.a0006261
EISBN: 978-1-62708-169-6
... and can be used in the as-welded condition with only a low risk of intergranular attack. Older cast alloys with higher carbon and silicon contents, however, are more prone to grain-boundary precipitation during welding and generally require postweld annealing. Wrought alloys are produced from the...
Abstract
This article provides information on nickel alloying elements, and the heat treatment processes of various nickel alloys for applications requiring corrosion resistance and/or high-temperature strength. These processes are homogenization, annealing, solution annealing, solution treating, stabilization treatment, age hardening, stress relieving, and stress equalizing. Discussion of furnaces, fixtures, and atmospheres is included. Nickel alloys used for the heat treatment processes include corrosion-resistant nickel alloys, heat-resistant nickel alloys, nickel-beryllium alloys, special-purpose alloys such as nitinol shape memory alloys, low-expansion alloys, electrical-resistance alloys and soft magnetic alloys. Finally, the article focuses on heat treatment modeling for selecting the appropriate heat treatment process.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4E
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04e.a0006265
EISBN: 978-1-62708-169-6
... or to facilitate polishing. Nickel is sensitive to intergranular attack from sulfur and metals such as lead, tin, zinc, and bismuth that have low melting points. Careful cleaning must be exercised to remove all traces of forming lubricants, marking paints, and shop soil prior to heating. Other...
Abstract
This article describes the heat treatment of wrought solid-solution and precipitation-hardening alloys with a focus on the major families of wrought nickel alloys. It also provides information on the heat treatment of some representative solid-solution alloys in the Monel (Ni-Cu), Inconel (Ni-Cr-Mo), Hastelloy (Ni-Mo-Cr), and Incoloy (Ni-Fe-Cr) families of alloys. The heat treatment processes for gamma prime nickel alloys, gamma prime nickel-iron superalloys, and gamma double-prime nickel-iron superalloys are also included. The article also provides information on age-hardenable alloys, and the effects of cold work on aging response and grain growth with examples.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003137
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... saline solutions, alkaline solutions, and organic chemicals. However, copper is susceptible to more rapid attack in oxidizing acids, oxidizing heavy-metal salts, sulfur, ammonia (NH 3 ), and some sulfur and NH 3 compounds. Resistance to acid solution depends mainly on the severity of oxidizing...
Abstract
Copper and copper alloys are widely used in many environments and applications because of their excellent corrosion resistance, which is coupled with combinations of other desirable properties. This article lists the identifying characteristics of the forms of corrosion that commonly attack copper metals as well as the most effective means of combating each. General corrosion, galvanic corrosion, pitting, impingement, fretting, intergranular corrosion, dealloying, corrosion fatigue, and stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) are some forms of corrosion. The article also lists a galvanic series of metals and alloys valid for dilute aqueous solutions, such as seawater and weak acids. It provides useful information on the effects of alloy compositions, selection for specific environments, and atmospheric corrosion of selected copper alloys. The article also tabulates the corrosion ratings of wrought copper alloys in various corrosive media.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001314
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... overpickling. This can be done conveniently by adding the proper weight of scrap iron to the bath when it is prepared. The nitric acid/hydrofluoric acid bath (Formula 3) must be used with care. Nickel-chromium and nickel-iron-chromium alloys are subject to intergranular attack in this solution if they have...
Abstract
Nickel alloys can be divided into four groups: high-nickel alloys, nickel-copper alloys, nickel-chromium alloys, and nickel-iron-chromium alloys. Alloys within each composition group that has similar surface conditions are pickled in the same solutions using the same procedures. This article discusses the procedures used for pickling nickel and nickel alloys. It discusses three different surface conditions for pickling these nickel alloys: bright annealed white surface requiring removal of tarnish by flash pickling; bright annealed oxidized surface requiring removal of a layer of reduced oxide, sometimes followed by a flash pickle to brighten; and black or dark-colored surface requiring removal of adherent oxide film or scale. The article also reviews specialized pickling operations of nickel alloys and various cleaning and finishing operations, including grinding, polishing, buffing, brushing, and blasting.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001227
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... such as oxalic acid occasionally are used with the acid salts when ferrous metal parts are being cleaned in rotating barrels. Oxalic acid attacks steel, but seldom to an objectionable degree. Thiourea is a good inhibitor, if inhibited oxalic acid solutions are required. The addition of fluoride salts...
Abstract
This article focuses on the mineral and organic acid cleaning of iron and steel. It begins with a discussion on the application methods, process selection criteria, solution composition, equipment used, and control of process variables in mineral acid cleaning. The article then describes the advantages and disadvantages of organic acid cleaning. Applications, including boiler cleaning, stainless steel cleaning, and removal of iron- and copper-bearing deposits, are discussed. The article concludes with an overview of acid cleaning of nonferrous alloys.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001245
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... passive in nickel sulfate solutions. Although the tendency for passivity persists even in the presence of chlorides, the chloride ion attacks the passive oxide film that forms when current flows through the anode, and nickel can be dissolved through pits on the surface. The sulfur-containing materials do...
Abstract
This article discusses the process considerations and deposit properties of nickel plating. It describes the Watts solution and the anode materials used. The article focuses on the nickel plating processes used for decorative, engineering, and electroforming purposes. It provides information on the quality control of nickel plating. It concludes with a review of the environmental, health, and safety considerations associated with nickel plating.
Book: Corrosion: Materials
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13b.a0003828
EISBN: 978-1-62708-183-2
... such as grain boundaries, slip lines, scratches, and so forth. This study showed extensive attack at all of these sites. A “pitting-type” attack was identified as occurring at temperatures below 130 °C (266 °F) by coalescence of several nuclei into a single pit growing into the metal. At higher...
Abstract
This article reviews general corrosion of uranium and its alloys under atmospheric and aqueous exposure as well as with gaseous environments. It describes the dependence of uranium and uranium alloy corrosion on microstructure, alloying, solution chemistry, and temperature as well as galvanic interactions between uranium, its alloys, and other metals. The article provides information on the atmospheric corrosion of uranium based on oxidation in dry air or oxygen, water vapor, and oxygen-water vapor mixtures depending upon particular storage conditions. The mechanism and morphology of hydride corrosion of uranium are discussed. The article provides information on environmentally assisted cracking, protective coatings, and surface modification of uranium and its alloys. It also summarizes the environmental, safety, and health considerations for their use.
Book Chapter
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001274
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... coating chemicals, reacts with the metal to be coated, and at the interface, a thin film of solution is neutralized because of its attack on the metal. In the neutralized solution, solubility of the metal phosphates is reduced, and they precipitate from the solution as crystals. Crystals are then...
Abstract
This article focuses on the types, composition, and applications of phosphate coatings and describes the characteristics of phosphate-coated ferrous and nonferrous materials, including steel and aluminum. It addresses five successive process fundamentals: cleaning, rinsing, phosphating, rinsing after phosphating, and chromic acid rinsing. The article describes the techniques for controlling the chemical composition of various phosphating solutions. It discusses the equipment and factors that influence equipment requirements in immersion and spray systems. The article also describes the controlling procedures of coating weight and crystal size. It provides guidelines for choosing phosphate coatings based on application, coating weight requirements, and recommended process parameters. The article concludes with a discussion on safety precautions and the treatment of effluents from phosphating plants.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4E
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04e.a0006276
EISBN: 978-1-62708-169-6
... treatments such as precipitation hardening, spinodal hardening, order hardening, and quench hardening and tempering. The article presents tables that list the compositions and mechanical properties of copper alloys. It also discusses two strengthening mechanisms of copper alloys, solid-solution strengthening...
Abstract
This article provides information on the Unified Numbering System designations and temper designations of copper and copper alloys. It discusses the basic types of heat treating processes of copper and copper alloys, namely, homogenizing, annealing, and stress relieving, and hardening treatments such as precipitation hardening, spinodal hardening, order hardening, and quench hardening and tempering. The article presents tables that list the compositions and mechanical properties of copper alloys. It also discusses two strengthening mechanisms of copper alloys, solid-solution strengthening and work hardening. Finally, the article provides information on the equipment used for the heat treating of copper and copper alloys, including batch-type atmosphere furnaces, continuous atmosphere furnaces, and salt baths.
Book: Corrosion: Materials
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13b.a0003830
EISBN: 978-1-62708-183-2
... the surface has lost much of its original luster. The appearance and the degree of corrosive attack are related to RH. Relative humidity of up to approximately 70% has little influence on corrosion. Above 70%, corrosion activity may occur, because moisture precipitates on the surface, especially on...
Abstract
Zinc is one of the most used metals, ranking fourth in worldwide production and consumption behind iron, aluminum, and copper. This article commences with an overview of the applications of zinc that can be divided into six categories: coatings, casting alloys, alloying element in brass and other alloys, wrought zinc alloys, zinc oxide, and zinc chemicals. It discusses the corrosion and electrochemical behavior of zinc and its alloys in various environments, particularly in atmospheres in which they are most widely used. The article tabulates the corrosion rates of zinc and zinc coatings immersed in various types of waters, in different solutions in the neutral pH range, and in soils at different geographic locations in the United States. It concludes with information on the forms of corrosion encountered in zinc coatings, including galvanic corrosion, pitting corrosion, and intergranular corrosion.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4E
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04e.a0006283
EISBN: 978-1-62708-169-6
... To reduce chemical attack in corrosive environments To stabilize and prevent distortion after machining and fabricating operations. This potential distortion could be a result of machining stresses, thermal stresses due to heat treatment, and stresses induced by straightening operations, even...
Abstract
This article provides a detailed discussion on heat treatment of titanium alloys such as alpha alloys, alpha-beta alloys, and beta and near-beta alloys. Common processes include stress-relief, annealing, solution treating, aging, quenching, and age hardening. It provides information on the effects of alloying elements on alpha/beta transformation. The article also discusses the heat treating procedures, and the furnaces used for heat treating titanium and titanium alloys.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003244
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... candidates for electrolytic polishing. Electropolishing is usually reserved for single-phase alloys, because second phases and inclusions may be preferentially attacked during polishing. Chemical polishing involves simple immersion of a metal specimen into a suitable solution to obtain a metallographic...
Abstract
This article describes the methods and equipments involved in the preparation of specimens for examination by light optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, electron microprobe analysis for microindentation hardness testing, and for quantification of microstructural parameters, either manually or by the use of image analyzers. Preparation of metallographic specimens generally requires five major operations: sectioning, mounting, grinding, chemical polishing, and etching. The article provides information on the principles of technique selection in mechanical polishing, and describes the procedures, advantages, and disadvantages of electrolytic and chemical polishing. It also provides a detailed account of procedures, precautions, and composition for preparation and handling of etchants.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003247
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... etched; use fresh H 2 O 2 for best results.) (b) Coppers and copper alloys. Film on etched aluminum bronze can be removed with weak Grard's solution. 1g Fe(NO 3 ) 3 100 mL water Add dropwise to the cloth during polishing with an abrasive, such as alumina. Attack polishing of coppers and copper...
Abstract
This article describes the metallographic technique for nonferrous metals and special-purpose alloys. These include aluminum alloys, copper and copper alloys, lead and lead alloys, magnesium alloys, nickel and nickel alloys, magnetic alloys, tin and tin alloys, titanium and titanium alloys, refractory metals and alloys, zinc and zinc alloys, and wrought heat-resisting alloys. The preparation of specimens for metallographic technique includes operations such as sectioning, mounting, grinding, polishing, and etching of nonferrous metals and alloys. The article contains tables that list the etchants for macroscopic examination and microscopic examination of nonferrous metals and special-purpose alloys.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003245
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
...). Immerse or swab for up to 20 min. 12 2 g picric acid, 25g sodium hydroxide, 100 mL water Alkaline sodium picrate. Use boiling for 30 s or more to darken cementite. Solution will attack mounts made from Bakelite. 13 50 mL cold saturated aqueous sodium thiosulfate, 1 g potassium metabisulfite...
Abstract
Proper sectioning of the surface to be examined is a very important step in preparing steel specimens. The first step in preventing damage to the metallurgical structure is to minimize the amount of sectioning that is done. This article discusses the various metallographic techniques, namely mounting, grinding, polishing, and etching involved in the microstructural analysis of carbon and alloy steels, case hardening steels, cast iron, ferrous powder metallurgy alloys, wrought and cast stainless steels, tool materials, steel castings, iron-chromium-nickel heat-resistant casting alloys and different product forms of steels.
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001307
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
... removing scale, pickling solutions that contain nitric acid will remove many surface contaminants through oxidation. However, because the acid solution attacks the base metal, it is necessary to limit the pickling time to prevent excessive metal loss or metal surface roughening. Parts made from alloys...
Abstract
This article describes the methods for removing metallic contaminants, tarnish, and scale resulting from hot-working or heat-treating operations on nickel-, cobalt-, and iron-base heat-resistant alloys. It provides a brief description of applicable finishing and coating processes, including polishing, electroplating, ceramic coatings, diffusion coatings, and shot-peening. The article presents numerous examples that identify cleaning and finishing problems and the procedures used to solve them.
Book: Corrosion: Materials
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 13B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v13b.a0003827
EISBN: 978-1-62708-183-2
... beryllium surface was uncontaminated and free of exposed Be 2 C inclusions ( Ref 1 ). Polished, uncoated specimen coupons were subjected to an atmosphere of air plus 95% relative humidity at 40 °C (100 °F) for 30 days, with a result of no apparent corrosive attack. Neither microscopic examination nor weight...
Abstract
This article describes the four major conditions that can cause beryllium to corrode in air. These include beryllium carbide particles exposed at the surface; surface contaminated with halide, sulfate, or nitrate ions; surface contaminated with other electrolyte fluids; and atmosphere that contains halide, sulfate, or nitrate ions. The article provides information on the behavior of beryllium under the combined effects of high-purity water environment, stress and chemical environment, and high-temperature environment. The compositions of the structural grades for intentionally controlled elements and major impurities are tabulated. The article discusses in-process problems and procedures with beryllium and aluminum-beryllium composites to prevent corrosion during processing, handling, and storage. It also describes the types of coatings used on beryllium and aluminum-beryllium. These include chemical conversion coatings, anodized coatings, plated coatings, organic coatings, and plasma-sprayed coatings.
Book Chapter
Book: Surface Engineering
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 5
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1994
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v05.a0001309
EISBN: 978-1-62708-170-2
.... Vapor degreasing effectively removes many soils from copper alloys. Stabilized trichloroethylene is used extensively in vapor degreasing because it does not attack copper alloys during degreasing and because it has high solvency for the oils, greases, waxes, tars, lubricants, and coolants in general use...
Abstract
The selection of surface treatments for copper and copper alloys is generally based on application requirements for appearance and corrosion resistance. This article describes cleaning, finishing, and coating processes for copper and copper alloys. These processes include pickling and bright dipping, abrasive blast cleaning, chemical and electrochemical cleaning, mass finishing, polishing and buffing, electroless plating, immersion plating, electroplating, passivation, coloring, and organic coatings.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003117
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... general, a smooth, highly polished, reflective surface has greater resistance to corrosion. Rough surfaces are more likely to catch dust, salts, and moisture, which tend to initiate localized corrosive attack. Oil and grease can be removed by using hydrocarbon solvents or alkaline cleaners, but these...
Abstract
Selection of appropriate grades of steel will enable the steel to perform for very long times with minimal corrosion, but an inadequate grade can corrode and perforate more rapidly than a plain carbon steel will fail by uniform corrosion. This article describes the effect of chemical composition, heat treatment, welding, and surface condition on corrosion resistance of stainless steels. It discusses the various forms of corrosion and the important factors to be considered when selecting suitable stainless steel for application in specific corrosive environments.