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ASM International Committee on Nondestructive Testing of Composites, R.H. Bossi, D.E. Bowles, Y. Bar-Cohen, T.E. Drake ...
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asymmetric laminates
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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 20
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1997
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v20.a0002478
EISBN: 978-1-62708-194-8
.... Composite laminates are constructed from lamina with uniaxial fiber orientation and frequently from textile fabrics as well. The article explains the characteristics of symmetric in-plane and through-thickness laminates; asymmetric in-plane and symmetric through-thickness laminates; asymmetric laminates...
Abstract
This article begins with a discussion on fiber-reinforced composite materials and describes the generic behavior and structure/property relationships of composites. The article summarizes lamina properties and presents equations that help in the calculation of lamina properties. Composite laminates are constructed from lamina with uniaxial fiber orientation and frequently from textile fabrics as well. The article explains the characteristics of symmetric in-plane and through-thickness laminates; asymmetric in-plane and symmetric through-thickness laminates; asymmetric laminates; and curved laminates. It provides information on controlled thermal expansion composites, metal-matrix composites, and ceramic-matrix composites. The article illustrates the types of bonded joints and concludes with a discussion on design for manufacturing.
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Published: 01 January 1997
acute in symmetric laminate. (b) Fully asymmetric laminate. The use of an asymmetric laminate allows the thermal coefficients of expansion to be controlled to compensate for thermal distortions and preserve the right-angle. However, a fully asymmetric laminate would warp in the arms of the right angle
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Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003044
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
... be abbreviated as [0°/ 90 °] S . For asymmetric laminates, a subscript “T” is often used to denote total laminate. For example, the laminate [0°/90°] can be written as [0°/90°] T . This assures the reader that the laminate is indeed asymmetric and that a subscript “S” was not inadvertently omitted. Balanced...
Abstract
Testing of fiber-reinforced composite materials is performed to determine uniaxial tensile strength, Young's modulus, and Poisson's ratio relative to principal material directions, that helps in the prediction of the properties of laminates. Beginning with an overview of the fundamentals of tensile testing of fiber-reinforced composites, this article describes environmental exposures that often occur during specimen preparation and testing. These include exposures during specimen preparation, and planned exposure such as moisture, damage (impact), and thermal cycling techniques. The article also discusses the test procedures, recommended configurations, test specimen considerations, and safety requirements considered in the four major types of mechanical testing of polymer-matrix composites: tensile test, compression test, flexural test, and shear test.
Book Chapter
Book: Composites
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 21
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2001
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v21.a0003383
EISBN: 978-1-62708-195-5
... ). All the plates discussed here are midplane symmetric, which eliminates bending-stretching coupling. It is, however, possible to include this effect in the analysis if asymmetrical laminates are used. The first ten modes of vibration of a typical plate can be adequately described by using a coarse...
Abstract
Damping is the energy dissipation properties of a material or system under cyclic stress. The vibrational and damping characteristics of composites are important in many applications, including ground-based and airborne vehicles, space structures, and sporting goods. This article describes the damping characteristics of unidirectional composites, when they are subjected to longitudinal shear, longitudinal tension/compression, and transverse tension/compression. It presents equations that govern the overall damping capacity of beams that are cut from laminated plates. The article discusses the effect of temperature on damping and provides information on the relationship between damping and strength.
Book Chapter
Book: Composites
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 21
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2001
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v21.a0003378
EISBN: 978-1-62708-195-5
... the development of the relations between mid-surface strains and curvatures and membrane stress and moment resultants. The article discusses the properties, such as thermal expansion, moisture expansion, and conductivity, of symmetric laminates and unsymmetric laminates. It describes the distribution...
Abstract
The properties of unidirectional composite (UDC) materials are quite different from those of conventional, metallic materials. This article provides information on the treatment of UDC stress-strain relations in the forms appropriate for analysis of thin plies of material. It explains the development of the relations between mid-surface strains and curvatures and membrane stress and moment resultants. The article discusses the properties, such as thermal expansion, moisture expansion, and conductivity, of symmetric laminates and unsymmetric laminates. It describes the distribution of temperature and moisture through the thickness of a laminate. Stresses caused due to mechanical loads, temperature, and moisture on the laminate are analyzed. The article concludes with information on interlaminar cracking, free-edge delamination, and transverse cracks of laminates.
Book: Composites
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 21
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2001
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v21.a0003443
EISBN: 978-1-62708-195-5
... Abstract This article provides the general mechanical testing guidelines for the characterization of lamina and laminate properties. Guidelines are provided for tensile property, compressive property, shear property, flexure property, fracture toughness, and fatigue property test methods...
Abstract
This article provides the general mechanical testing guidelines for the characterization of lamina and laminate properties. Guidelines are provided for tensile property, compressive property, shear property, flexure property, fracture toughness, and fatigue property test methods. The article also tabulates selected standards for lamina and laminate mechanical testing.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003041
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
... in autoclave molding. It also describes the tooling configuration and type of tooling which includes aluminum and steel tooling, electroformed nickel tooling, graphite-epoxy tooling, and elastomeric tooling. autoclave molding autoclave molding materials autoclave system composites laminates layup...
Abstract
Autoclave molding is a process used to impart a controlled heat and pressure cycle cure to a layup. This article describes the materials used for preparing a layup, including peel ply, separator, bleeder, barrier, breather, dam, and vacuum bag. It describes the major elements and functions of an autoclave system, including pressure vessel, gas stream heating and circulation sources, gas stream pressurizing systems, vacuum systems, control systems, and loading systems. The article includes information about modified autoclaves for specialized applications and safety practices in autoclave molding. It also describes the tooling configuration and type of tooling which includes aluminum and steel tooling, electroformed nickel tooling, graphite-epoxy tooling, and elastomeric tooling.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 8
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v08.a0003330
EISBN: 978-1-62708-176-4
... for composites. The properties reduced from tension tests on composite materials are effective (averaged) properties. The test method applies to unidirectional composites but can also be performed on laminates, woven fabrics, or discontinuous fiber composites. For asymmetric and/or unbalanced laminates...
Abstract
This article begins with a review of the purposes of mechanical characterization tests and the general considerations related to the mechanical properties of anisotropic systems, specimen fabrication, equipment and fixturing, environmental conditioning, and analysis of test results. It provides information on the specimen preparation, instrumentation, and procedures for various mechanical test methods of fiber-reinforced composites. These include the compression test, flexure test, shear test, open hole tension test, and compression after impact test. The article describes three distinct fracture modes, namely, crack opening mode, shearing mode, and tearing mode. It presents an overview of fatigue testing and fatigue damage mechanisms of composite materials and reviews the types of mechanical measurements that can be made during the course of testing to assess fatigue damage. The article concludes with a discussion on the split-Hopkinson pressure bar test.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003236
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
..., cracks, segregations, seams, flakes, pipe Rolled products—laminations, inclusions, tears, seams, cracks Castings—slag, porosity, cold shuts, tears, shrinkage cracks, inclusions Service-induced flaws: fatigue cracks, corrosion, erosion, stress-corrosion cracks Angle-beam, contact-type...
Abstract
Ultrasonic inspection is a nondestructive method in which beams of high-frequency acoustic energy are introduced into a material to detect surface and subsurface flaws, to measure the thickness of the material, and to measure the distance to a flaw. This article provides a detailed account of ultrasonic flaw detectors, including ultrasonic transducers and types of search units and couplants. The article describes pulse-echo and transmission inspection methods and data interpretation. The general characteristics of ultrasonic waves and the factors influencing ultrasonic inspection are also addressed. The article concludes with a review of the advantages and disadvantages of ultrasonic inspection compared with other methods applications of the technique.
Book: Composites
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 21
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2001
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v21.a0003356
EISBN: 978-1-62708-195-5
... for construction lumber. Hybrid Composites Hybrid composites were manufactured using glass (E-glass woven fiber) and Durafiber grade 2 flax fibers (Cargill Limited Inc.) in an AESO- based polymer ( Ref 84 ). These were manufactured in symmetric and asymmetric manners by RTM. In the symmetric hybrid...
Abstract
This article describes the synthesis, manufacturing, and properties of both the neat soy-based resins and the glass, flax, and hemp composites. A tabulation of the fatty-acid distribution in various plant oils is provided. The article discusses synthetic pathways for triglyceride-based monomers and provides a discussion on acrylated epoxidized soybean oils (AESO), maleinized soyoil monoglyceride (SOMG/MA), and maleinized hydroxylated oil (HO/MA). The polymer properties of the AESO, SOMG/MA, and HO/MA are also discussed. The article explains the ballistic impact resistance of soy resin composites and concludes with a discussion on biodegradable composites.
Book Chapter
Book: Composites
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 21
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2001
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v21.a0003436
EISBN: 978-1-62708-195-5
..., and brittle matrix. These defects include delaminations, matrix cracking, fiber fracture, fiber pullout, and impact damage. Table 1 shows some of the defects that may appear in composite laminates and their effect on the structural performance. While the emphasis of most practical nondestructive evaluation...
Abstract
This article introduces the principal methodologies and some technologies that are being applied for nondestructive evaluation of composite materials. These include ultrasonic testing (UT), air-coupled UT, laser UT, ultrasonic spectroscopy, leaky lamb wave method, acousto-ultrasonics, radiography, X-ray computed tomography, thermography, low-frequency vibration methods, acoustic emission, eddy current testing, optical holography, and shearography. The article presents some examples are for fiber-reinforced polymer-matrix composites. Many of the techniques have general applicability to other types of composites such as metal-matrix composites and ceramic-matrix composites.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006478
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
..., matrix cracking, fiber fracture, fiber pullout, and impact damage. Table 1 shows some of the defects that may appear in composite laminates and their effect on the structural performance. While the emphasis of most practical nondestructive evaluation (NDE) is on detection of delaminations, porosity...
Abstract
This article introduces the principal methodologies and some advanced technologies that are being applied for nondestructive evaluation (NDE) of fiber-reinforced polymer-matrix composites. These include acoustic emission, ultrasonic, eddy-current, computed tomography, electromagnetic acoustic transducer, radiography, thermography, and low-frequency vibration methods. The article also provides information on NDE methods commonly used for metal-matrix composites.
Book: Composites
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 21
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2001
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v21.a0003381
EISBN: 978-1-62708-195-5
.... and Lyons J.S. , Effect of Hygrothermal Environment on the Bending of PMC Laminates under Large Deflection , J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. , Vol 19 ( No. 06 ), 2000 , p 465 – 491 • Upadhyay P.C. and Lyons J.S. , Hygrothermal Effect on the Large Deflection Bending of Asymmetric PMC...
Abstract
Hygrothermal behavior of cured composite materials relates to the combined and commonly synergistic effects of moisture absorption and temperature on various physical, chemical and mechanical properties. This article focuses on the influence of resins or matrices, reinforcements, processing, and diffusion on hygrothermal behavior of polymer-matrix composites and provides an outline on general considerations in assessing them. It discusses the hygrothermal testing and conditioning of polymer-matrix composites to assess fundamental hygrothermal behavior. The article provides information on the accelerated aging process for understanding the degradation mechanisms and failure modes in composites. It also describes the effect of moisture absorption on mechanical properties of polymer-matrix composites.
Book: Composites
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 21
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2001
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v21.a0003415
EISBN: 978-1-62708-195-5
... of the matrix. At the moment the matrix melts, the glass mat within the laminate begins to revert back to its original three-dimensional form in a process known as “lofting.” Here the material thickness rises by a factor of two or three back to the original lofted height of the glass mats before lamination...
Abstract
Compression molding is the single largest primary manufacturing process used for automotive composite applications. This article provides an overview of the compression molding process. It describes the basic design, materials, and processing equipment of three main groups of composite materials, namely, glass-fiber-mat-reinforced thermoplastics, long-fiber-reinforced thermoplastics, and sheet molding compounds. The article also presents information on the application examples and market volume of compression molding.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.9781627081900
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006473
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
Abstract
This article discusses the inspection/reference standards that are absolutely critical for proper application of ultrasonic inspection systems. Many of the standards and specifications for ultrasonic inspection require the use of standard reference blocks. The article lists the variables that should be considered when selecting standard reference blocks and describes the three types of standard blocks ordinarily used for calibration or reference: area-amplitude blocks, distance-amplitude blocks, and blocks of the type sanctioned by the International Institute of Welding. It reviews the determination of area-amplitude and distance-amplitude curves of a straight-beam pulse-echo ultrasonic inspection system. The article discusses the three principal conventional manual ultrasonic sizing techniques: 6 dB drop technique, maximum-amplitude technique, and 20 dB drop technique. It provides information on the dimension-measurement applications of ultrasonic inspection methods.
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.9781627082006
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003068
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
... to a limited extent in the alkyd. Resin used in coatings. Reaction products of ambient. The environment that surrounds and con- production of molded and laminated insulating materi- polyhydric alcohols and polybasic acids. Also used ex- tacts a system or component. als. Products made from these resins have...
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006469
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
... of an interface. Metal/air interfaces produce sharp indications if the interfaces are relatively smooth and essentially parallel to the front surface. If an interface is curved (such as the surface of a large pore) or rough (such as a crack, seam, or lamination) or if it is not ideally reflecting...
Abstract
This article considers the two primary methods used for ultrasonic inspection: pulse-echo and the transmission methods. Pulse-echo inspection can be accomplished with longitudinal, shear, surface (Rayleigh), or Lamb (plate) waves using a diverse range of transducers. The article discusses the principles of each of these inspection methods. It describes the applications and the basic data formats for single-element transducer-based systems, including A-scans, B-scans, and C-scans. The article provides information on electronic equipment used for ultrasonic inspection. It also describes how specific material conditions produce and modify A-scan indications. The article provides information on the controls and their functions for the display unit of the electronic equipment. It describes the techniques used for the identification and characterization of flaws, namely, surface (Rayleigh) wave and ultrasonic polar scan techniques.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 8
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v08.a0003262
EISBN: 978-1-62708-176-4
.... For asymmetrical beams such as Z-sections and unequal L-sections, the second and third conditions for cylindrical bending are not satisfied; for unsymmetrical bending of symmetrical beams, the third condition is not met. These cases are significant in structural design and will not be considered here. Information...
Abstract
A characteristic feature of bending is the inhomogeneous (nonuniform) nature of the deformation. Therefore, in a bent specimen, the strain and stress at a given point are dependent on the location of the point with respect to the neutral axis of the cross-sectional area of the specimen. This article discusses the stress-strain relationships, strain curvature, and stress-moment equations for elastic, noncylindrical, elastic-plastic, and pure plastic bending conditions. It also reviews the distribution of residual stress and springback.
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